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An organization first established in 1926 in the New Territories. Its original role was to provide advice and guidance to the District Commissioner. It had a fairly simple structure in its early days, but this was made more complex and formal in 1948 when elections were introduced for village representatives to replace the old system of appointment of village elders. In 1957, as a result of a major dispute within the leadership, the government withdrew its recognition of the organization. It was however reconstituted in 1959 as a corporate body and its structure was laid down in an appropriate government ordinance. It was to be based on some 900 representatives of the 500 or so villages in the New Territories. Each village was to have up to 3 representatives, each representing some 50 families. These representatives, in turn formed 27 Rural Committees, which with one exception elected a Chairman, two Vice Chairmen and an Executive Committee every two years. The Heung Yee Kuk sat at the top of this complex structure and is composed of the 54 chairmen and vice chairmen of the Rural Committees plus others. These in turn elect the Chairman of the Heung Yee Kuk along with the Vice Chairmen. Women play a limited role in the choice of representatives.

In the 1970s, with the massive expansion of the population of the New Territories and the growth of the New Towns there, the power of the traditional rural representation of the Heung Yee Kuk waned. For instance by the end of the 1970s it was estimated that only 10% to 12% of the population were native to the area. However the Heung Yee Kuk managed to gain representation on the Regional Council and the Legislative Council in the 1980s thus regaining some political power. By implication the Basic Law guaranteed a degree of political power to the Heung Yee Kuk under article 40 where it is stated that, "The lawful traditional rights and interests of the indigenous inhabitants of the 'New Territories' shall be protected by the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region". (See Basic Law; Legislative Council; New Territories; Regional Council).

Sir Kai Ho Kai was the first Chinese to qualify in medicine in Hong Kong. He was admitted as a barrister in the Supreme Court and became the third Chinese member to serve on the Legislative Council. He served on the Legislative Council for 24 years, founded the Hong Kong College of Medicine and helped to found the University of Hong Kong in 1912. He was closely associated with the reform movement in China and worked with Sun Yat-sen (Sun Yixian) towards the overthrow of the Ch'ing (Qing) dynasty. He is still regarded as one of the most influential Chinese in Hong Kong's history and is highly regarded in the community as a reformer and champion of Chinese rights. (See Ch'ing (Qing) Dynasty; Sun Yat-sen (Sun Yixian); Universities).

In 1901 the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885 was adopted in the colony. Its provisions were far harsher than the previous laws relating to homosexuality which had been laid down in 1865. The new law created the offence of gross indecency between males regardless of whether the act was committed in public or private or with the consent of those involved. The law remained in force with amendments under the Offenses Against the Person Ordinance (1981) with punishments that ranged from two years for gross indecency to life imprisonment for acts of sodomy. In 1981 the Law Reform Commission was asked to consider the decriminalization of homosexuality but its recommendation to decriminalize homosexual acts between consenting adults over the age of 21 was largely ignored. Eventually, in 1991, this change in the law was approved.

There are two offices, in the People's Republic of China, with this title. The first comes under the PRC's State Council and the second is controlled by the PRC's Foreign Ministry. The former was created in 1978 and is the more important. Its role is to report on the economic and political situation in the two territories and report on public opinion; to help to form the policies of the Chinese government on the territories; to look after the affairs of Hong Kong and Macau; and to coordinate with other interested departments in the People's Republic of China. The Hong Kong and Macau office has wielded considerable influence over the future of Hong Kong and Macau. It was instrumental in arranging the details of the Basic Law and since that time has promoted Chinese interests in Hong Kong in the run up to 1997. After the creation of the Special Administrative Region in 1997 the State Council's Hong Kong and Macau office will be a major conduit in relations between the SAR and the central government in Peking (Beijing). (See New China News Agency).

Founded in 1864 and incorporated some two years later the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank has always been the most prominent bank in the colony. It was the banker for the government, one of the two note-issuing banks, and in nearly all respects operated as the central bank for the colony. Its Chairman has been a member of the Executive Council since the end of the second world war. Its influence is waning as 1997 approaches, and it has in the last few years deliberately reduced its reliance on the territory by various means. The Bank of China, a PRC controlled bank, may well challenge the preeminence of the HKSBC in the coming years. (See Banks; Currency).

An industrial and trade association founded in 1861. Its main functions were to promote trade and to attract investment from abroad. It expanded massively in the post war period and had a membership of over 2,700 companies in 1990. In 1985 it importance was recognized by the granting of one seat as a functional constituency in the Legislative Council. (See Functional Constituencies; Legislative Council).

The Hong Kong Observers were a powerful and influential pressure group set up in 1975 to promote change in Hong Kong's political system. They were highly critical of what they saw as a patronizing central government. The membership was overwhelmingly Chinese, middle class and university educated. They were particularly active in the late 1970s and early 1980s, but were overtaken by the creation of larger political groups in the late 1980s.(See Pressure Groups).

Under the provisions of the Joint Declaration it was agreed that from midnight on 30 June 1997 Hong Kong would cease to be a British Colony and would become a Special Administrative Region (SAR) under the sovereignty of the PRC. The declaration allowed for a high degree of autonomy for the SAR which was to last for at least 50 years. The detailed political, economic and cultural details relating to the proposed SAR were to be found in the Basic Law promulgated in April 1990. (See Autonomy; Basic Law; Joint Declaration).

The House of Commons is part of the British Parliament. Parliament is bicameral with the House of Lords making up the second part. Of the two houses the Commons is by far the most powerful. Its membership is 650 and is directly elected from geographical constituencies on a universal adult franchise. It traditionally performs the functions of providing the majority of the executive (including the prime minister), and is the guardian against the abuse of executive power. It also has the power to scrutinize, change or reject legislation, and it is normally seen as enhancing the legitimacy of the government. Since the second world war the House of Commons has rarely interfered in the autonomy of Hong Kong to run its own affairs. It has debated issues, passed necessary legislation pertaining to the colony and has received annual reports on the state of the territory. (See Anglo-Chinese Parliamentary Group; Constitution; Foreign Affairs Committee; Government, British; Parliament, British).

The House of Lords is the second and weaker chamber in the British Parliament. Its powers were curtailed in the 20th century by a series of acts (e.g. 1911 and 1948). It has always been a nonelected chamber made up of hereditary peers and, since 1958, life peerages. It again debates issues relating to Hong Kong and plays a formal though not influential role in passing legislation relating to the territory. (See Government British; House of Commons; Parliament, British).

Until the post war period all housing in the colony was private and subject only to controls relating to health and sanitation. Even in this area the controls were fairly lax. However, with the major growth in the population after the second world war a huge number of squatter areas grew up in the colony. Much of the housing stock was also of poor quality without running water, electricity, proper cooking facilities or sanitation. In 1953 it was estimated that 13% of the population lived in these squatter areas. In that year a major fire broke out in the Shek Kip Mei squatter settlement which left over 58,000 people homeless. The government intervened and a program was announced to provide basic public housing for the poorer sections of the community. The public housing schemes proved successful and by 1963 over 620,000 people were living in public housing. A Housing Board was set up in 1965 which set the number of apartments to be built and established improved standards for their construction. Since that time the number of public housing units has been increased both in quantity and quality. However by American or British standards the size allowance of 3.3 sq.meters per adult might seem meager. Rental costs have averaged about 7% of family income on rent which indicates a high degree of subsidy from an avowedly "noninterventionist" government. In 1990 nearly 3 million people out of a total population of 5.8 million lived in public housing. (See Chadwick Report; Health; MacLehose, Sir Murray).

Hsu Chia-t'un (Xu Jiatun) was the director of the New China News Agency, Peking's (Beijing's) de facto embassy in Hong Kong from July 1983 till February 1990. He was previously the Party First Secretary in the Province of Chiang Su (Jiangsu). As director, he was far more inclined to make political statements than his predecessors. For example, as early as November 1985 he accused the Hong Kong Government of breaching the Joint Declaration, an accusation that was quickly retracted following a protest from the Governor. Under his leadership, the New China News Agency increased both in size and importance.

An annual festival (Fifth Lunar Month) of long standing in Hong Kong where an attempt is made to placate ghosts who have become dispossessed and could be dangerous on earth. At this time the gates of the underworld are opened and ghosts are free to wander at will. Large numbers of Hong Kong people burn offerings such as paper money for use in the underworld.

A term used to refer to persons who entered Hong Kong illegally by sea or by land. Although the vast majority came from the People's Republic of China, others arrived from other politically turbulent parts of South East Asia. Prior to 1949 there was free immigration into the colony from the mainland (with exceptions such as those who had been deported from the territory). However, this policy was revised as the numbers increased rapidly at the same time as relationships between the governments of the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China deteriorated badly.

This did not stop large numbers of Chinese, particularly Cantonese, from attempting to enter the colony illegally. The numbers increased dramatically during the Cultural Revolution in the late 1960s, and even in the 1970s the number entering the colony illegally was estimated at 20,000 per year. The "touch base" policy at the time meant that if the illegal immigrants could reach an urban area they were permitted to stay, but if apprehended in the rural areas they were deported.

For Hong Kong the major advantage was an influx of cheap and unorganized labor for the emerging manufacturing industry. The major disadvantages were the strain on the health system, education, social services and housing. In the period 19791980 a surge of 100,000 was experienced with a peak of over 450 a day. In response, the Hong Kong government, in concert with the authorities in the People's Republic of China, came to an agreement ending the "touch base policy".

All existing illegal immigrants in the territory were required to register within a three-day period for an identity card which it would be compulsory to carry on the person. Since that time any person without an identity card (or, in the case of a visitor, a passport) has been liable for deportation. Despite this policy, substantial numbers of illegal immigrants still enter the territory to work on construction sites, and in small manufacturing firms.

Finally with the arrival of the Vietnamese people the term "illegal immigrant" was extended to cover those who were not defined as genuine political refugees. In particular a distinction was drawn between those who were seen as genuine political refugees and those who were perceived to be merely economic migrants. The latter group were classified as illegal immigrants. This policy of screening all Vietnamese was formally adopted by the Hong Kong government in June 1988. (See Economic System; Immigration Ordinance; Reached Base Policy; Snake Heads; Vietnamese Refugees).

Immigration control in Hong Kong was not applied until 1923 when all persons entering the colony were required to have travel documents. NonBritish were also required to have visas. The major exception was people deemed to be of Chinese race, upon whom no restrictions were placed. However, in 1949, with the imminent success of the communists on the mainland and the huge upsurge of immigration into the territory, legal controls were placed upon Chinese entering Hong Kong. These controls were followed by the issuing of entry permits in 1950 which applied to all those of Chinese race, with the minor exception of a few groups in Kwangtung (Guangdong) province. Essentially this situation has remained with a few additions relating to restrictions on Commonwealth citizens which were introduced in September 1969. ( See Illegal Immigration).

The Independent Commission Against Corruption, commonly referred to in Hong Kong as the ICAC, was established in the territory in 1974 to counter widespread corruption in the public domain. Although laws against corruption had been in existence as early as 1898 they were increasingly felt to be ineffectually administered. New ordinances, particularly the 1948 AntiCorruption Ordinance, did little to improve the deteriorating situation. The Advisory Committee on Corruption was established in 1958 and recommended in 1961 that an independent group be set up to deal with corruption. Its recommendations, however, were opposed by the Commissioner of Police and not acted upon.

In 1973 a major corruption scandal involving a high-ranking policeman (see Godber Affair) led to an inquiry, and the production of the BlairKerr reports. This strongly recommended the establishment of an independent group to tackle corruption. The Governor, Sir Murray MacLehose, endorsed the report and the Independent Commission Against Corruption was set up in 1974. It was given wide powers to deal with corruption with policing, consultative and educational functions within its brief. In its policing role it was extremely active concentrating initially on the Royal Hong Kong Police force. In 1977 it prosecuted 121 members of the police force, twenty from other parts of the public sector and 96 from the private sector. As a body it gained increasing support from the public and was successful in reducing the incidence of corruption in the territory. There are no indications that the ICAC will cease to operate after Hong Kong returns to Chinese administration. (See Advisory Committee on Corruption; Blair-Kerr Reports; Godber Affair; MacLehose, Sir Murray; Royal Hong Kong Police Force).

The Independent Monitoring Team (IMT) was set up in 1984 by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to monitor the work of the Assessment Office. This was established in the same year to test public opinion on the proposed Joint Declaration on the future of Hong Kong up to and beyond 1997. The IMT was to ensure that the Assessment Office discharged its duties impartially and within its terms of reference. Its report largely endorsed the methods and findings of the Assessment Office. (See Assessment Office; Joint Declaration).

Indirect elections to the Legislative Council were introduced in 1985, whereby a series of electoral colleges were formed from District boards and Municipal Councils. These returned 12 members to the 56 member Legislative Council. Under the Basic Law, there is provision for the indirect election of the Chief Executive by an electoral college after the hand-over of the territory. Also in the first Special Administrative Region Legislative Council there will be 10 members out of a total of 60 elected indirectly by an election committee. The indirectly elected members will be reduced to 6 in the second term and phased out completely in the third term. (See Basic Law; Functional Constituencies; Legislative Council).

The document signed on the 16 September 1945 which formally declared that Japan surrendered to British Forces. The document simply stated: "We, Major General Umekichi Okada and Vice Admiral Huitaro Fujita, in virtue of the unconditional surrender to the Allied Powers of all Japanese Armed Forces and all forces under Japanese control wherever situated, as proclaimed in Article Two of the Instrument of Surrender signed in Tokio (sic) Bay on 2nd September 1945, on behalf of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese Imperial Headquarters, do hereby unconditionally surrender ourselves and all forces under our control to Rear Admiral Cecil Halliday Jepson Harcourt, C.B., C.B.E., and undertake to carry out all such instructions as may be given by him or under his authority, and to issue all necessary orders for the purpose of giving effect to all his instructions.

The International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) was adopted by the United Nations in 1966 thus codifying in treaty form the Universal Declaration of Human Rights first issued in 1948. Britain was a signatory to the ICCPR except for the protocol issued in 1976. However, with respect to Hong Kong, the United Kingdom ratified the ICCPR with certain reservations. These will remain until the 1997 handover, and relate to such areas as free elections to the elected legislature and executive, the question of self-determination, right of abode, nationality, legislation, deportation of aliens and mixing of juveniles and adults in prisons. In April 1990 the Basic Law stated that the provisions of the ICCPR" as applied to Hong Kong will remain in force and shall be implemented through the laws of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" (Article 39). It is widely presumed that the British reservations will continue to apply to the SAR. (See Basic Law; Bill of Rights; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights).

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights was the second covenant relating to human rights which was ratified by Britain on May 17 1976. By virtue of Britain's signature they applied to Hong Kong also until 1997. However, as in the case of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights( ICCPR) there were reservations pertaining to Hong Kong and other dependent territories. In particular Britain had reservations relating to equal pay for men and women, the right of trade unions to form confederations and precluding the imposition of restrictions, based on place of birth or residence qualifications, on taking employment in any particular region or territory. The Basic Law stipulated in Article 39 that as in the case of the ICCPR, the provisions would remain in force after 1 July 1997. (See Basic Law; Bill of Rights; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights).

The International Labor Organization (ILO) was first established in 1919 and was affiliated to the United Nations in 1946. Although Hong Kong was not a member, Britain made declarations on behalf of the territory. By 1990 Hong Kong had recognized 29 of the total 169 ILO conventions and a further 18 with reservations. Those reservations applied to such areas as equal pay for men and women, unemployment benefits and contracts of employment. Under the Basic Law the future Special Administrative Region (SAR) will be permitted to abide by the provisions of the ILO although the document makes no mention of any separate membership for the SAR. (See Basic Law).

Japan's significance for Hong Kong increased substantially with its invasion of the colony in December 1941. The buildup to this event can be traced first to the outbreak of the undeclared war between Japan and China in July 1937. The Japanese quickly took Peking (Beijing), Tientsin (Tianjin), Shanghai, and Nanking (Nanjing) and in October 1938 Canton (Guangzhou) also fell to the Japanese. Britain's position on the war was one of sympathy with the Chinese whilst not overtly alienating the Japanese. This position did not change with the outbreak of war in Europe in September 1939. However, on December 8th shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor Japanese troops, which had massed on the borders of Hong Kong, attacked in strength against an ill-prepared British defence. The British resistance to the Japanese lasted only two weeks with the British surrendering on 25 December, 1941. The Japanese occupation of Hong Kong lasted until 14 August 1945 and the formal surrender took place on the 16 September 1945.

During this period the colony came under direct Japanese military rule under the title of, "The Captured Territory of Hong Kong". LtGeneral Rensuke Isogai was appointed as Governor. The period of occupation saw a huge reduction in the population from 1,600,000 just before the invasion to under 600,000 by the end of the war.

In the post-second world war era Hong Kong's relations with Japan have been on a more friendly footing. Trade between the two increased rapidly as they both underwent their individual economic "miracles". By 1970 Japan was the number one exporter to Hong Kong, exceeding both China and the United States of America. In 1990 China again overtook Japan. Japan was the fourth most important destination for Hong Kong's exports after the United States of America, the United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany. Japan has also become a major investor in the territory. Although it is difficult to obtain precise figures of current investment in the territory it is thought that Japan has overtaken the United States of America. (See Second World War; Trade).

A famous company which was founded in Canton (Guangzhou), acting in its early years both as an agent and a private trader. The company was established by William Jardine (17851843) and James Matheson (17961878) in 1832. Initially, Jardines were heavily involved in the opium trade, but the company gradually expanded into trading and commerce. The company has retained a major role in the economic affairs of the territory.

The term often used to refer to the agreements between Britain and the People's Republic of China over the future of Hong Kong. The full title of the Government White Paper containing the Joint Declaration is: "A Draft Agreement between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the People's Republic of China on the Future of Hong Kong" The agreement was initialled on 26 September 1984, and formally signed by the British Prime Minister Mrs. Margaret Thatcher and the Chinese Prime Minister Chao Tzu-yang (Zhao Ziyang) on 19 December 1984. It was published in two languages, namely Chinese and English.

The English version was a lengthy document which was divided into six major sections. It began with an introduction from the British perspective and then moved into a text of the declaration itself. There were three annexes: an elaboration by the People's Republic of China on its basic policies towards Hong Kong; details of the setting up of a SinoBritish Joint Liaison Group; and details of land leases. It then proceeded to the Exchange of Memoranda with a British memorandum and a Chinese memorandum. The final part dealt with the British Government's explanatory notes. The provisions of the agreement were as follows.

The Joint Liaison Group (JLG) was set in 1985 up as a result of the Joint Declaration. It was to oversee the transition from British to Chinese control, and is to cease to exist in the year 2000. It met alternatively in Peking (Beijing) and London until 1988, when it became substantively based in Hong Kong. However, it has continued to meet occasionally in the two capital cities. Although it has no clearly specified powers, it has discussed a range of key issues, such as constitutional reform and the developing of a new airport in the territory. Its membership was drawn from the respective foreign ministries. Its terms of reference were:

With the adoption of the "Four Modernizations" as official policy in the People's Republic of China in the late 1970s, there was provision for the establishment of Joint Ventures with foreign firms wishing to set up businesses on the mainland. Hong Kong companies have been heavily involved in these ventures. (See Economy; Four Modernizations; Trade).

The Kaifong associations, literally meaning people of the same street, were a traditional form of self-administration, especially in the old market towns. New associations were encouraged by the Hong Kong government after the second world war. The government's enthusiasm can be best understood in the context of the rapidly growing population which increased from about half a million in 1945 to 1.6 million by the end of 1946 and nearly 2.4 million by 1950. The idea was to encourage a degree of local self-help principally to reduce the demand on central government. The Kaifongs were encouraged to become responsible for such areas as recreation, education, local welfare, the resolution of family disputes and keeping the central government in touch with local needs. They were provided with small budgets. Their potential success rested on the ability of traditional Chinese society to operate at a neighborhood level. However, from the early 1970s the importance of the Kaifongs has dwindled in response to social change, the introduction of new levels of government, and the extension of government intervention associated with rapid economic growth. (See District Administration; Political System).

Governor of Hong Kong from 1872 until 1877. He was particularly concerned with the state of law and order in the colony and encouraged the use of Chinese recruits into the police force. He also increased the extent of public works such as constructing reservoirs and new hospitals. He encouraged a grant in aid system whereby voluntary schools received financial support. He also made some changes in central government administration by strengthening the powers of the Legislative Council in areas of debate and financial control, increasing the membership of the Executive Council to five, and establishing the practice of having the Colonial Secretary as Acting Governor in the absence of the Governor himself. He failed to redress the problem of the blockade and did little to ameliorate the appalling sanitary conditions of the colony. (See Colonial Secretary; Education; Executive Council; Governor; Health; Legislative Council).

The Korean War lasted from June 25, 1950 to June 26 1953. The United Nations, under the leadership of the United States, sent forces to repel an invasion of South Korea by North Korea. When United Nations forces pushed back the invading forces they moved into North Korea, and even advanced towards the border with the People's Republic of China. Chinese "volunteers" then crossed over into North Korea on October 26, 1950 and pushed back the United Nations forces almost to the border that had existed before the war.

The effect of the Korean War upon the economy of Hong Kong was quite dramatic. In the early part of the war, and before the Chinese military intervention, Hong Kong had supplied Peking (Beijing) with war-related materials such as petrochemical supplies, rubber, machinery and electrical appliances. However, with the imposition of the American embargo on all Chinese goods in the December of 1950 and a United Nations embargo in 1951, Hong Kong's traditional role of entrepot almost collapsed. At the same time the United States, now no longer receiving any textiles from China found new supplies from a Hong Kong textile industry expanding with the influx of entrepreneurs and cheap labor from China. In this sense the war acted as a major catalyst for economic restructuring and growth in the colony.

The KowloonCanton Railway (KCR) was completed in 1911. It runs from the eastern side of New Territories, to the border with China at Lowu, and on to Canton (Guangzhou). After 1949, passengers moving into the People's Republic of China would have to get off the train at Lowu and walk across into the PRC. This practice was discontinued with the easing of relations between governments of Britain and the PRC after the introduction of the Four Modernizations. The increase in passenger traffic both to the rapidly developing New Territories and to the mainland itself, combined with the huge increase in the movement of goods between Southern China and Hong Kong, saw the need to modernize the rail connection. This was completed in Hong Kong by 1983 with the electrification of the line and the construction of double tracking. In consequence the average number of passengers using the KCR increased from 53,000 per day in 1980 to 422,000 in 1988. Inbound freight did not show a huge increase in the period 19801988 but exports to China via the KCR during this same period increased from 6,762 tons to 484,152.

The Kowloon Walled City existed from the Sung (Song)(960-1279)and under both the Ming (Ming)( 13681644) and Ch'ing (Qing) (16441912) dynasties. It had grown quite significantly during the period 18411898 in response to its proximity to the British colony which at that time covered Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island. In 1898, when the Chinese government ceded the New Territories to Britain it was agreed that the Kowloon Walled City would remain under Chinese administration. However in 1899, after skirmishes with Chinese armed troops protesting against the establishing of British administration in the New Territories, Kowloon Walled City was occupied by British troops. The city was then declared to be no longer under Chinese jurisdiction. From that point the British government consistently rejected continual Chinese claims for jurisdiction both under the period of the Nationalist government and later that of the People's Republic of China. Britain, whilst having formal authority over the Walled City, was careful not to assert it too obviously. In 1947 there were riots in City following British attempts to administer the area more actively. Further objections to any similar moves occurred in 1963, 19731975 and 1983. The problem was eventually solved in 1987 when the British and Chinese authorities agreed to clear the walled city for development into a public park. (See Convention of Peking (Beijing); New Territories).

The links between Kwangtung (Guangdong) and Hong Kong are extremely powerful. It was the trade with the province and the wider area of southern China that led the British to acquire Hong Kong as a colony in 1843 as a secure base to conduct business. Immigration from China into the colony was overwhelmingly from the province. This has led to strong cultural links and to the adoption of Cantonese rather than Mandarin as the common spoken language. Links with Kwangtung (Guangdong) became even more compelling with the introduction of a Special Economic Zone in Sham Chun (Shenzhen), adjacent to Hong Kong. Set up in 1980, along with Chu Hai (Zhuhai), it attracted large amounts of Hong Kong investment particularly in the manufacturing sector.

The Basic Law places Hong Kong under the direct authority of the Central People's Republic after 1997, rather than the authority of the Kwangtung (Guangdong) government. However, functional cooperation between Hong Kong and Kwangtung (Guangdong) increased greatly in the 1980s particularly in matters of trade and commerce. (See Basic Law; Illegal Immigration; Sham Chun (Shenzhen); Trade).

The Kuomintang (Guomindang) (KMT) party rose to significance after the downfall of the imperial dynasty in 1912, and competed for power in the Republic of China. Its modern form is usually seen as arising from the leadership of Dr Sun Yat-sen (Sun Yixian), the father of modern Chinese republicanism. After an uneasy spell of cooperation with the Chinese Communists where they combined to restore order in the war - ridden republic by the launching of the Northern Expedition, the KMT turned on the communists in 1927 and attempted to liquidate them. General Chiang Kaishek (Jiang Jieshi) who had led the military expedition, and who represented the right wing of the party emerged as the leader of the whole party. In 1949 after a prolonged civil war the KMT was ousted from the mainland by the communists under the leadership of Mao Tse-tung (Mao Zedong). It fled to Taiwan where it established a dominance over the island's politics which still persists.

Relations between the KMT and Hong Kong were uneasy for long periods. The strains showed over trade relations in the 1920s, over the jurisdiction of the Walled City (1934) and over the attempts by the KMT to acquire the colony from Britain at the end of the second world war. After 1949 many KMT supporters fled to Hong Kong. There were riots between the supporters of the Communists and the KMT in 1956, and many supporters most notably in the New Territories still fly the Nationalist flag on certain days. (See Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi); China, People's Republic of; China, Republic of; Disturbances; General Strike; Kowloon Walled City; Sun Yat-sen (Sun Yixian); Taiwan).

Hong Kong has for the greater part of its history been wedded to the concept of laissezfaire. This was the predictable corollary of the colony's dependence upon trade as an entrepot until the late 1940s, and the later development of an economy which was dependent upon both trade and the exporting of its goods. The belief that, as far as possible, economic activity should be free from government interference or regulation has led to the status of the colony as a free port, to minimal government interference in the economy and to an aggressive stance against protectionism in the international community. In the postwar period however the pure concept of laissezfaire has been eroded in so far as the Hong Kong government has intervened in the economy more actively with vast increases in spending on public housing, hospitals, education, social services, and infrastructural development. (See Economic System; Trade).

Originally a term used in American politics to describe an American President at the end of the second and final term of office. Mistakenly used in the period after the signing of the Joint Declaration in 1984 to describe the declining powers of the Hong Kong government. The implication is that the increasing powers of the People's Republic of China over the affairs of the territory during the transitional period up to 1997 has led to a decline in the legitimacy of the territory's government. (See Basic Law; Joint Declaration).

Since the founding of the colony all land has been owned by the government. One consequence of this was that the government could obtain valuable revenue by releasing land for sale under lease. In 1843 leases were granted for a maximum of seventy five years. This period was extended to 999 years in December 1848, but that decision was rescinded in May 1898 reverting back to the old 75 years with a concession that they were renewable for one more term.

In the New Territories, ceded to Britain by China in 1898, all land became Crown land, but the inhabitants who were farming land there were immediately given a leasehold title to the land they occupied. Under the Convention of Peking (Beijing), it was established that land in the New Territories could not be leased for longer than 99 years in toto. From that time onwards Crown leases, that is land owned by the government, have been sold for any period until 28 June 1997, three days before the New Territories revert back to Chinese sovereignty.

Leaseback was one of the options considered by the British in the early stages of the negotiations about the future of Hong Kong after 1997. This option, which was favored by the British negotiators, envisaged that Hong Kong would be returned to the sovereignty of the People's Republic of China, but in return the Chinese authorities would allow the British to administer the territory for an agreed fixed term. The idea was quickly rejected by the Chinese government and the idea was dropped.

Lee Pengfei became the senior member of the Legislative Council in 1988. A successful businessman, he first became a member of the legislature in 1978 and was made a member of the Executive Council in 1985. Mr Lee was active during the drafting of the Basic Law. In the earlier stages, he was clearly in favor of limited representational reforms. After the events in Peking (Beijing) in May and June 1989 he tried to develop a consensus among OMELCO members attempting to bring together the more conservative proposals. However, the OMELCO document was rejected by the Chinese authorities. (See Basic Law; Executive Council; Legislative Council; OMELCO).

Mr Martin Lee, a successful lawyer, rose to prominence in the 1980s as the most outspoken champion of the liberal position in the territory. He has been a member of the Legislative Council since 1985, initially representing the Legal functional constituency but later as a directly elected representative. Mr Lee campaigned heavily for the widest possible franchise for the territory, and for a Bill of Rights for Hong Kong. He was for a time a member of the Basic Law Drafting Committee, but his criticism of the Communist Party of China, particularly during the disturbances in the People's Republic of China in May and June 1989, led him to be expelled from the Basic Law Drafting Committee in July 1989. He was instrumental in forming the United Democrats of Hong Kong political party in 1990. (See Basic Law; Bill of Rights; Functional Constituencies).

There are several historical sources of Hong Kong law. The Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing), the Hong Kong Charter and the subsequent Letters Patent and Royal Instructions form one major source. Another is to be found in constitutional and legal conventions, and a third in English and Hong Kong common law. Finally there are traces of customary law from Ch'ing (Qing) China, although this is usually overridden if it contradicts British Law. Formally, all Hong Kong law was subordinate to British law. British Parliamentary Law was superior to any laws passed in the colony and could hence overrule any ordinances passed by the Legislative Council. Equally the British Crown could enact any laws which would apply to the colony irrespective of whether the territory objected or not (although this has occurred only rarely on domestic matters)

Institutionally the most important legislative agencies for Hong Kong were the Crown, the British Parliament and the Hong Kong legislature. In practice, however, the Executive Council was of great significance in identifying areas where legal changes were required and the Legislative Council has been important in approving proposals for change. Also significant have been the Legal Department of the Civil Service, together with the enforcement agencies of the Royal Hong Kong Police, the Correctional Services Department and the Independent Commission against Corruption.

The judicial system has a clear hierarchy, being headed by the Chief Justice, followed by Justices of Appeal, Deputy Judges and District Court Judges. The vast majority of cases were heard by Magistrates. The Final Court of Appeal lies not in Hong Kong but in London with the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.

The basis of the system operates on the assumption of the independence of the judiciary from the other branches of government. It also assumes traditional principles such as the equality of the individual in the face of the law, limited government, the absence of any arbitrary law, the public nature of the law, consistency, predictability of outcome of the process, no retroactive measures, the protection of the rights of the citizens and a law which is understood by its citizens.

The major concern expressed in Hong Kong after the promulgation of the Basic Law was that the authorities on the mainland would have the power, if they so wished, to abrogate the Basic Law. There were also concerns about potential grey areas surrounding the extent of the Final Court of Appeal's jurisdiction. (See Basic Law; Chief Justice; Constitution; Letters Patent; Nanking (Nanjing), Treaty of; Parliament, British; Royal Instructions).

Prior to Britain's assuming control over the territory the legal system was based on Chinese law, and questions soon arose over the degree to which traditional laws would be allowed to pertain in the colony. The general rule laid down in 1843 was that the " laws and customs of China should supersede those of England" except where the Chinese law was in conflict with the " immutable principles of morality which Christians must regard as binding on themselves in all places and at all times".

Until 1986 Ordinances passed by the Legislative Council which were repugnant to the Acts of Parliament, specifically applicable to Hong Kong, were null and void to the extent of their repugnancy. However, under the Hong Kong Act (1985) the Legislative Council is given the power to amend or repeal any Act of Parliament so far as it was applicable to Hong Kong. (See Colonial Laws Validity Act; Legal System).

The first Legislative Council (LEGCO) was established in January 1844 with an original membership of three as stipulated in the Hong Kong Charter. Under that document the Governor was to make laws for peace, good order and good government on the advice of the Legislative Council. The powers of the body were to include the administration of civil law, police and prisons, land and its transfer, and the authority to levy taxes. The legislative body would be non-elected, small and appointed by the Governor but with the powers of confirmation resting in the United Kingdom. It remained non-elective until the 1980s. Until 1880 it was also composed exclusively of nonChinese. It has generally been supportive of the Governors, and for the most part non-interventionist.

The size and the composition of the Council have changed considerably over the years as can be seen from the accompanying table. After the early years when the Council was very small indeed, more government officials were included as well as increasing numbers of appointees from outside the government who were included principally as representatives of business interests.

The evolution of the Legislative Council speeded up in the post-second world war period. As can be seen in the figures above the numbers were increased overall and the number of non-official members increased, eventually outnumbering the government officials. At the same time there was a gradual localization of the membership with the ratio of 13 expatriate and 4 local in 1946 changing to 14 expatriate and 47 locals by 1984. However, there were still no elected members.

This situation changed following the White Paper of 1984, and members were elected for the first time in 1985. The electoral method employed was that of indirect elections with some members being elected by an electoral college made up mainly of members of the District Boards and other members elected by functional constituencies (e.g. the medical and teaching professions). In the White Paper of 1988 it was announced that from 1991 the composition of the council would for the first time include a directly elected element and at the same time the number of appointed members would be reduced. In their place the numbers returned by functional constituencies which were indirectly elected would be increased. With an expanded Council of 60 members 50% would now be either directly or indirectly elected.

The Basic Law promulgated in April 1990 stated that after July 1, 1997 the composition of the Legislative Council would be changed yet again. The Chief Executive (the replacement for the Governor) would not sit on the Council, but a President would be elected from among the members. Nonresidents could comprise up to 20% of the membership. The total membership would be 60 with the composition as follows:

Article 73 specified the powers and functions of the Council. These include the functions of enacting, amending and repealing laws, examining and approving budgets, taxation and public expenditure, receiving and debating policy addresses by the Chief Executive, scrutinizing government administration, debating issues of public interest, endorsing the appointment and removal of judges and receiving and handling complaints from the public. It also provided for an investigation of the Chief Executive should he or she be charged with dereliction of duty or a breach of the law. In these circumstances the Council would have powers to summon persons to give testimony.

Articles 7479 outlined the procedures for introducing bills, the quorum, rules of procedure, how bills become law, immunities for legislators when in session or going to a session, and the circumstances under which a member might lose office (e.g. serious illness, prolonged absence without consent, renunciation of status as permanent resident, acceptance of government appointment or becoming a public servant, bankruptcy, serious criminal offenses and misbehavior in the Council).

After the promulgation of the Basic Law in April 1990, the Hong Kong government announced that the composition of the 1991 Legislative Council would be: Governor, Three ex-officio officials, 18 appointed unofficials, 18 directly elected and 21 functional constituencies. The Government also announced the creation of the post of Deputy President of the Legislative Council in 1991. The Deputy President would normally chair the meetings in all sessions except the Governors annual address.

The Letters Patent have their origins in the Hong Kong Charter of April 5, 1843 establishing Hong Kong as a colony. They gave the first Governor, Sir Henry Pottinger powers to establish, "the Island of Hong Kong into a separate colony and to create a Legislative and Executive Council in the said colony and for granting certain powers and authorities to the Governor for the time being of the said colony". They were in effect a public direction from the British monarch to one of his or her servants. Amendments were occasionally made through the nineteenth century, and a major revision was drawn up in 1917, which provides the basis for the present Letters Patent. They have been frequently amended since that time.

What was significant about the first Letters Patent was the degree of formal power to be vested in the Governor. Although some of this power was whittled away with the changes in the Letters Patent, the original model was still extant in the colony. The Letters Patent also clarified the relationship between the branches of government and between the Hong Kong government and the colonial power in London. The independence of the judiciary was also clearly spelt out in the Letters Patent. The document itself will cease to have any validity at midnight on June 30 when Hong Kong is handed over to the People's Republic of China and becomes a Special Administrative Region. (See Basic Law; Constitution; Executive Council; Functional Constituencies; Governor; Joint Declaration; Letters Patent; Localization; Political System; Royal Instructions;

Li Hon Hing unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate Governor Sir Henry Blake on 4 July 1912. At first it was thought that a connection existed between the act and turmoil across the border in China. However, Mr Li bore only a personal grudge against the Governor for an earlier altercation when Sir Henry had been Captain Superintendent of the Hong Kong police.

Lin Tsehsu (Zexu) was appointed the special Imperial Commissioner for the suppression of the opium trade and arrived to take up his office in Canton (Guangzhou) on the 10 March 1839. He came prepared for drastic action and only eight days later he ordered not only all opium possessed by foreign merchants to be given up but also that the British traders sign a bond promising not to import further opium on the pain of death. Europeans were subsequently detained in their factories, until the opium chests were eventually handed over. However, Charles Elliot, the United Kingdom's Superintendent of Trade, refused to accept the use of these agreements and the merchants were evacuated to Macau. Lin then put pressure on the Portuguese government in Macau to expel the British, leading Elliot to withdraw the British community to Hong Kong harbor. With the onset of military action between the British and the Chinese, Lin was made a scapegoat and was scolded by the Emperor. He was dismissed from his post, and exiled to Sinkiang (Xinjiang) in 1841. He died in 1850. (See Anglo-Chinese Wars; Chuanpi (Chuanbi), Convention of; Elliot, Captain Charles; Opium Wars).

In Hong Kong Island and Kowloon there was virtually no effective local government at the district level until well after the second world war. The administration was based on the functional distribution of work among the specialist services. The main disadvantage of this was that there was little coordination of planning and the particular needs of a local area were often overlooked. However, in 1967, following the disturbances in the colony a City District scheme was set up by the government. Its main purpose was to provide a recognizable "government" representative in each area. Ten City District Officers were created who were required to make themselves accessible to the people in their districts and keep in touch with local organizations. They were to explain government policies, coordinate services, initiate new policies and receive complaints and representation arising from government activity. However, there was no intention of giving these District Officers any statutory power or authority.

In the New Territories, where the population was much smaller and traditional Chinese practices were much more deeply rooted a district scheme was adopted from the very beginning. With the lease of 1898 it was seen that the long-settled rural area with its close knit community was already provided with a number of administrative and social services. Accordingly the government presence took the form of the district officer and the police officer, and these worked in tandem with the existing structure provided by the traditional Heung Yee Kuk. The district officer was concerned mainly with political, administrative and judicial matters whilst the Police office was concerned with law and order. In the event the District Officers shed many of their responsibilities as the New Territories were developed.

In the 1980s as the distinctions between the New Territories and the more urbanized Hong Kong Island and Kowloon became more blurred, a new and unified system for the whole territory was introduced. District Advisory Boards were formally established to advise the central government on local needs. They were not, however, given any fiscal powers and their role was heavily circumscribed.

At the next level of local government were to be the two Municipal Councils: the Urban Council and the Regional Council. The Urban Council had been formed in 1936 with a responsibility for Hong Kong and Kowloon taking over the previously performed by the Sanitary Board. Its role was the provision of municipal services such as street cleaning, refuse collection, environmental hygiene, the provision and running of public sporting facilities, museums, public libraries and cultural events. The Regional Council was created in 1986 to fulfil similar purposes in the New Territories.

District Boards were established in all 18 districts in 1976 and elections were held for part of their membership from 1982 but real power in most areas continued to lie with the central government. The same overall judgement applied to the Municipal Councils. Under the provisions for the post-1997 period the same basic system of a powerful central government with a weaker set of sub-local government units looks likely to continue. (See District Administration; Heung Yee Kuk; New Territories; Political System; Regional Council; Urban Council).

For much of the period of British colonial administration the Chinese were largely excluded from key positions in the political and bureaucratic systems. The first Chinese was appointed to the Legislative Council only in 1880. Even in the early part of the twentieth century the percentages of Europeans in the public service were much higher than in other colonies such as Ceylon. For example, although in 1913 there were 175 European policemen, 472 Indians and 576 Chinese all the top positions were limited to the Europeans and similar patterns were found in all the other public departments. Surprisingly there was little pressure for change among those Chinese who were appointed to the Legislative Council.

It was not until 1930s that the pressures began to mount for greater selection of local people for senior positions and for equal pay between people doing similar jobs. (For example, at this time a European doctor working for the Medical Department earned an equivalent of HK$10,266 on first appointment whereas his Chinese equivalent was paid only $4,500). In 1946 the government adopted a policy of replacing Europeans with Chinese wherever possible. There was, however, little pressure to bring salaries into parity between expatriates and locals, and the impetus faltered as time progressed.

The situation changed gradually until by 1983 there were 394 locals and 484 expatriates in the most senior positions of the bureaucracy (a 55% majority for the expatriates). With the Joint Declaration of 1984 localization accelerated slightly so that by 1989 the ratio in the top posts was 635 locals to 493 expatriates (a local majority of 56.2%). At present rates of change locals are likely to occupy 85% of these posts by 1997. In addition the Basic Law guarantees that all posts at Secretary rank and above will be held by Chinese nationals who have lived in Hong Kong for at least 15 years.

The entry of the local community into the highest levels of the private sector was at first gradual but later rapid. This trend was accelerated by the rapid economic growth of the economy. The multi national companies recruited large numbers of locals who entered top managerial positions; the old Hongs opened their doors to locals; and finally many indigenous Chinese tycoons made their mark on the economy often replacing, or at least competing with, the old British Hongs. (See Basic Law; Emigration; Executive Council; Legislative Council; Royal Hong Kong Police Force).

Governor of Hong Kong from 1907 until 1912. His major problem was in controlling the troubles that emanated from the fall of the Ch'ing (Qing) dynasty in China. The revolutionaries had taken control of Kwangtung (Guangdong) province in 1911 and there was agitation for the ending of British rule in the colony. As a consequence major disturbances broke out with looting, attacks on Europeans and general violence. Lugard acted promptly by declaring a state of emergency, and giving the police wide powers to deal with the problem. The British garrison was reinforced by two battalions and the situation was rapidly brought under control. In less troubled times he also played a major role in establishing the first university in the colony. The University of Hong Kong was eventually opened in 1912 with the incoming governor, Sir Francis May, becoming its first Chancellor. (See Armed Forces; Ch'ing (Qing) Dynasty; Governors; Universities).

Traditionally the Lunar New Year (the New Moon closest to the Beginning of Spring - 5th. February) is the most important festival in the Chinese calendar as it marks the beginning of Spring and the end of Winter. The most important day is New Year's Eve when all the family gather for dinner and symbolic food is eaten, including fish (indicating surplus) and dry oysters (indicating good business). After the reunion dinner there is usually a visit to the flower market to purchase peach and plum trees, which signify good luck. At the Lunar New Year visits are made to temples and "lai see" (lucky money) is given to children and unmarried men and women. The festival lasts for fifteen days in total.

Governor of Hong Kong from 1866 until 1872 following a twelve-month interval when the colony was administered by the Colonial Secretary. Sir Richard Macdonnell was an active governor who arrived with a brief to investigate problems within the police force and to counter piracy in areas close to Hong Kong. On his arrival he expanded this brief pursuing major reforms of almost all government departments. Despite widespread opposition, including some members of the Legislative Council, he increased tax revenues both to pay for the new reforms and to regularize public revenue. Returning to his major brief he took vigorous action against local pirates, and successfully reduced police corruption by some necessary dismissals while also increasing the force's efficiency to combat crime. He also helped establish a long overdue fire service. Gambling was also brought under partial control by a licensing system which had the added benefit of increasing government revenue. Externally he was rather less successful with the Chinese authorities who introduced a blockade upon Hong Kong in 1867 which was to last beyond his departure and only to be finally lifted in 1886. (See Blockade; Governor; Royal Hong Kong Police Force).

Sir Murray MacLehose was the territory's longest serving Governor, administering the colony from November 1971 until May 1982. He arrived at a crucial period of economic and social change, and he adopted a far more reformist stance than any other postwar governor. He actively promoted a massive government housing program, introduced compulsory primary education while also raising the school leaving age from 14 to 15 years old, and doubled the size of the civil service. Expenditure in the fields of social and community service were also massively increased. Sustained economic growth throughout his term of office financed these changes without any major opposition.

Externally he was the first governor to pay an official visit to Peking (Beijing), in the improved relationships made possible by the coming to power of Teng Hsiao-p'ing (Deng Xiaoping). Whilst in China he raised the question of the future of Hong Kong after 1997, which led to the train of events which culminated in the Joint Declaration of 1984. On leaving Hong Kong Sir Murray was made a life peer and took his place in the House of Lords becoming an active and respected speaker on debates about the territory. (See Anglo-Chinese Negotiations; House of Lords; Housing).

A public enquiry conducted in 198081 to investigate the circumstances surrounding the death of police Inspector John MacLennon. Mr MacLennon had been the subject of enquiry by the Special Investigations Unit (SIU) of the Royal Hong Kong Police force, who had discovered sufficient evidence to charge him with gross indecency. When the police arrived to arrest him, he was found dead killed by five shots from a police revolver. The death led to public debate including rumors that he had been murdered because of his threat to name homosexuals in high positions in government if charges were pressed against him. In July 1981 the commission of enquiry found that the Inspector had committed suicide, but it also concluded that the police were not only using questionable means against witnesses, but also had been prepared to terminate the contract of a police officer merely on hearsay, and had demonstrated a discriminatory official attitude towards homosexuality. (See Homosexuality; Royal Hong Kong Police Force).

Mao Tse-tung (Mao Zedong) was the effective leader of the Chinese Communist Party from 1939 until he died in 1976. He developed a more realistic policy for the party after the debacle which had led to the Long March of 19341936. His writings on revolutionary warfare and his thinking on the essential part of the Chinese peasant as a revolutionary force projected him to the forefront of the Party. He led the party through its successful war against the Kuomintang (Guomindang) culminating in the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 with himself at the head. However, many of the domestic policies pursued by his government, particularly during the periods of the Great Leap Forward and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, proved to be serious failures. Most judgments of his handling of external relationships are more complementary although his theoretical writings on the subject, e.g. in his "Three Worlds Theory", appear simplistic. Mao's critics often suggest that the more significant contribution to Chinese foreign policy was made by Chou En-lai (Zhou Enlai) in this period. Since Mao's death in 1976 his reputation has declined although many of his ideas still command support among many in the party hierarchy.

The first English-language newspaper published within Hong Kong was the Friend of China (1842), although there had been papers such as the Chinese Recorder published previously for the expatriate communities in Macau and Canton (Guangzhou). Other English-language newspapers which soon became available in the colony included the China Mail, Hong Kong Daily Press, the Hong Sunday Herald, the Hong Kong Telegraph and the Overland Friend of China.

The post-war period saw the number of English medium newspapers decline quite rapidly to four in 1970 and only two in 1989. Of these the South China Morning Post (founded 1903) was by far the most popular. The Chinese press on the other hand expanded massively in the post-war period both in terms of the number of publications and the readership. By 1970 there were 66 Chinese newspapers covering a wide political spectrum although that number was reduced to 39 by 1990. The press in the territory has traditionally been extremely free by Asian standards.

Radio broadcasting, heavily subsidized by the government, began in 1928, and in 1948 the government station was renamed Radio Hong Kong. In 1953, following the British model, the radio service was separated from the Public Relations office, and put under the control of a Director of Broadcasting. Radio broadcasts were publicly funded, but with a high degree of independence from government interference. In 1957 commercial stations were established in the territory. A condition of all licenses was that radio stations carried at least one English Channel and at least one Chinese.

The first television service was set up in December 1957. The company produced 28 hours of programs per week, watched by an estimated 63,000 viewers. A second company was franchised in November 1967. By 1970 the estimated number of viewers watching both channels was thought to be in excess of 2 million. The government stipulated that each company had to transmit one channel in the English language and the other in Chinese. By 1990 it was estimated that over 98% of the households in the territory had a television.

Governor of Hong Kong from July 1912 until February 1919. He had already had some experience as acting Governor for six months in 1903 between the governorships of Sir Henry Blake and Sir Matthew Nathan. May was the first governor to come up through the civil service's domestic ranks. Despite being the target of an assassination attempt during his first month in office, he went on to achieve some notable reforms particularly in the education system where he ensured that all schools registered with the Director of Education and conformed to inspection and government regulations. He also dealt severely with a brief period of unrest which broke out in 1912 following the fall of the Ch'ing (Qing) Dynasty in China. Near the end of his term of office there were two major disasters in the colony: a fire at the Happy Valley Racecourse in which 600 were killed; and a severe outbreak of meningitis, which killed approximately one thousand people. (See Ch'ing (Qing) Dynasty; Education; Disturbances; First World War; Governor; Li Hong Hung).

The McKinsey Report, published in 1973 with a full title of "The Machinery of Government; A New Framework for Expanding Services", was a major catalyst in modernizing the colonial civil service to meet the needs of an increasingly complex and growing society. Its main recommendations were for a reduction of centralized control and the reorganization of departments into six major policy areas. (See Civil Service).

The Ming dynasty ruled from 1369 until 1644 when it was overthrown by the Ch'ing (Qing) dynasty (1644-1912). During this period the military bases in the region were reorganized and forts and garrisons were built to guard the approaches to the Pearl river to protect the trade route to Canton. In the 15th and 16th centuries Japanese pirates operated in the area which led to the Chinese navy, operating off the coast, to intercept and destroy them. The other danger came from the Portuguese who were anxious to trade. In 1514 the Portuguese forcibly occupied the Tuen Mun forts until they were defeated by the Chinese in 1521.

The region itself was dominated by major Punti (Cantonese) families, some of whom had supported the Ming in their successful bid for power. In 1571 the area was set up as a separate county and renamed San-On (Xin-an). It consisted of the Hong Kong area, plus the area just to the north in the Nant'ou (Nantou)- Sham Chun (Shenzhen)- Tapeng (Dapeng) zone. (See Ch'ing (Qing); Forts; Macau entries; Punti).

A traditional custom in many parts of China, including Hong Kong, was the practice of Mui Tsai (Mei Zi). Mui Tsai (Mei Zi), which translates into English as "Little Sister", involved poor families presenting one of the female children into the custody of a richer family. The original idea was that the receivers of the child would feed, clothe and generally look after her. Finally, when the child reached a marriageable age a suitable husband would be found. Unfortunately in many cases the child became a virtual slave or was even used as a prostitute in a brothel.

As a general rule the British colonial practice was not to interfere with the customs of a given culture unless it were repugnant to British law. But the issue of Mui Tsai (Mei Zi) began to become politically significant in 1917 with a Supreme Court case involving the kidnapping of two "little sisters" aged 10 and 13. In 1921 official government figures put the number of mui tsai (mei zi) at 8,653, which, although it was probably a gross underestimate, still represented over 10% of the girls in the colony. Strong pressures for abolition of the practice among the British community in the colony and in Britain were opposed by many Chinese as an unwarranted interference in Chinese customs. Legislation was passed in 1923 which forbade any further employment of new mui tsai (mei zi) . There were also attempts to tighten regulations relating to mistreatment of existing mui tsai (mei zi), and an inspectorate was established to enforce the new regulations. This compromise allowed the continuation of the existing system until the children grew up. As expected, the system gradually died out with only a few isolated cases being discovered after the second world war. In 1969 the Female Domestic Service Ordinance was repealed as obsolete.

The multifibre arrangements were an attempt to control the sales of cotton textiles from the newly industrializing economies (NIE) to the developed countries. In the 1950s and 1960s exports from NIE's such as Hong Kong and South Korea threatened the more established cotton textile industries of countries such as the United States and Britain. As a result a number of bilateral arrangements to control textile exports were concluded under the umbrella of the GATT between the exporting and importing countries. From 1973 Hong Kong entered into a number of such agreements with several developed economies including the European Community and the USA. (See Economic System; Trade).

The expansion of public housing and the proliferation of high rise buildings was associated with an increase in crime in certain areas of the territory. As a response in 1973 the government began to sponsor and encourage the establishment of Mutual Aid Committees. These were concerned with attempts to maintain law and order, principally through the provision of recreational, educational and cultural facilities at strictly local levels. They also provided a means whereby local grievances could be expressed by tenants. However, their influence was insubstantial, and in the 1980s membership fell rapidly. Their most active role became in organizing opposition to rent increases on domestic apartments.

The Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) was signed on 29 August 1842 on board the HMS Cornwallis. Relations between the Chinese and British governments had improved after the signing of the Treaty of Chuanpi (Chuanbi), but deteriorated in February 1841 when negotiations between the two countries broke down. Following the British occupation of Bogue forts and Canton (Guangzhou) in 1840, and an apparent threat to Shanghai and Nanking (Nanjing) in the spring of 1842, the Chinese government signed the Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) in an attempt to ensure the safety of their cities. The Treaty was seen by the Chinese authorities as a harsh and unfair one imposed by a military victor upon a prostrate country. The Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) and subsequent concessions extracted from the Chinese in the nineteenth century were referred to as the "Unequal Treaties" the legitimacy of which they never fully accepted.

Lord Napier was appointed as British Superintendent of Trade at Canton (Guangzhou) in 1833. His function was to liaise with the Chinese authorities on questions relating to foreign trade (particularly opium). This role had previously been undertaken by the Cohong, a designated group of merchants in Canton (Guangzhou). However, Lord Napier was largely disregarded by the Chinese government as he was not a "taipan" or manager. Nor, in the event did he prove very suited to diplomatic relations. He responded to the strengthening of Chinese defence positions on the Pearl River by the despatch of British troops to Macau and by deploying frigates at the mouth of the river. Such an act was seen by the Chinese authorities as provocative, and led to rapidly deteriorating relations. Lord Napier's military initiative was also not supported by the British community in the area. In consequence he was forced to comply with the Chinese demand that he remove himself to Macau. Shortly afterwards he died. (See Anglo-Chinese Wars; Opium Wars).

The New China News Agency (NCNA) first established in 1948. In the Chinese institutional hierarchy the NCNA is a branch of the Chinese State Council. The Agency's primary functions are to control the media on the mainland, to transmit the current orthodox views of the Chinese government, and to provide information on China to other states.

Its role in Hong Kong has been more complex. The British authorities would not allow any mainland diplomatic representation in Hong Kong, but at the same time the Chinese authorities did not wish to establish a consulate or embassy in the colony because of their insistence that Hong Kong was part of the sovereign state of China. There was, however, a perceived Chinese need for some informal representation in the colony, and this was supplied by the NCNA.

For much of the period 19491984 the NCNA adopted a low profile. It had little contact with the colonial government, and its main work was to transmit information back to Peking (Beijing) about the state of public opinion in Hong Kong and any other relevant information. It also attempted to maintain a united and proPRC front between the left-wing press and left-wing political organizations in Hong Kong.(See Hsu Chia-t'un (Xu Jiatun)).

The area of the territory which came under British control as a result of the Peking (Beijing) Convention in 1898. Before the area was leased to Britain, it was inhabited by four sets of indigenous groups: the Punti, Hakka, Tanka and Hoklo. The area had been brought under the control of China in 221224 B.C. by military conquests, but, although there is evidence of increasing Chinese influence, little substantial immigration into the area occurred until the Sung (Song) (960-1279). To protect trade in the area, some forts were built and a number of walled villages erected. The area now known as the New Territories was part of the Panyu county of the Nanhai prefecture until 331 A.D.. In that year it came under the administration of the Baoan county. The name was altered yet again in AD 757 when it became part of Tung Kuan (Dongguan). Finally, in 1573 Tung Kuan (Dongguan) county was divided into Tung Kuan (Dongguan) and San On (Xinan) counties. This arrangement existed until the British leased the territory from China in 1898.

At the end of the nineteenth century the great powers were actively engaged in competition for Chinese territory, and the British were concerned about the defensibility of Hong Kong. Their main interest in acquiring the New Territories therefore was to improve the defence of the colony against possible attack not from China but from the other European powers. The exact border was only fixed some nine months after the signing of the Peking Convention, but British control came into effect on 20 October 1898. Although previous agreements relating to Hong Kong and Kowloon had ceded territory in perpetuity, the Peking (Beijing) Convention put a time limit on British control of ninety-nine years, to run out on 30 June 1997.

On the mainland British jurisdiction was largely confined to the land area bounded to the south by Boundary Street and to the north by the south bank of the Sham Chun (Shenzhen) River. The boundary ran along the Chinese mainland shore to longitude 1130 520 E, and then ran south across Deep Bay to Lantau, along the shoreline of West Lantau, southward across to the west tip of Tai A Chau in the Soko islands, onwards south-west to latitude 22 090 N, then across to a line drawn south from the southernmost point of the east coast of Mirs Bay, then west along the Mirs Bay shoreline to Sha Tau Kok, then along the line of a stream and a small valley and so back to the Sham Chun (Shenzhen) River. Also included in the New Territories were 235 islands, many but not all uninhabited. The most important of these islands were Lantau, Cheung Chau, Ping Chau, Ma Wan, Lamma and the Po Toi group. The total size of the New Territories was 946.5 square kilometers.

The economy of the New Territories at the time depended primarily upon fishing and agriculture. Its people were highly suspicious of the British occupation and were initially uncooperative. One particularly difficult issue concerned control of the Kowloon Walled City which the British had originally agreed would remain under Chinese administration.

Gradually the area was brought under British supervision with a system of police and magistrates operating under the general supervision of district officers (indeed until the 1960s district officers were also the magistrates). However, local village, clan and indigenous organizations such as the Heung Yee Kuk were allowed to continue following the general British colonial practice of toleration of original systems not repugnant to British law.

The area remained relatively sparsely populated throughout the early part of the twentieth century. Even in the early post-war years there was little of the industrialization or the increases in population seen in the urban areas. The population, which had gone down substantially during the Japanese occupation, began to rise after the war but as late as 1970 it was still less than 500,000.

However, in 1972, the then Governor Sir Murray MacLehose, announced an ambitious housing plan, a basic feature of which was the attempt to alleviate high population density and poor housing in the urban areas by the construction of public housing especially in purpose built new towns some of which were to be located in the New Territories. The plan envisaged a huge exodus from the urban areas to the New Towns which would be constructed over the next thirty years. The population increase was to be over 2 million by 1988 rising to over 3.37 million by the late 1990s. Such an increase was to be accompanied by a massive infrastructural program involving a much improved communications system and the creation of an industrial base. Much of this plan has come to fruition, although there has been reluctance from employers to relocate, and a corresponding reluctance among lower income groups to move away from employment opportunities. There has been less reluctance among the expanding middle class to move to the New Towns and commute to more central work places. (See Conventions of Peking (Beijing); District Administration; Heung Yee Kuk; Housing; Joint Declaration; Kowloon Walled City; MacLehose, Sir Murray; Sino-British Negotiations; Unequal Treaties).

Ng Choy was the first Chinese barrister in Hong Kong. He was also the first Chinese person appointed to the Legislative Council replacing H.B. Gibb who was on leave in January 1880. The then Governor, Hennessy, who offered the appointment to Ng Choy, reported back to London in 1880 and asked for reorganization of the Legislative Council which was to contain six official members and five unofficials of whom one was to be Chinese. His appointment was criticized by the Secretary of State for the Colonies who insisted that Ng Choy's appointment would create a precedent making it impossible to avoid appointing a Chinese to one seat in future, even when there was nobody suitable.

Governor of Hong Kong from November 1937 to May 1940. He came to office around the time of the outbreak of the SinoJapanese war, and by 1938 he had to issue emergency regulations partly aimed at maintaining the colony's neutrality in response to the increasing threat of a Japanese invasion. Under these regulations the government acquired powers ranging from controlling food prices to forbidding the repair of Japanese and Chinese ships engaged in the war. These were followed in August 1940 by the Hong Kong Defence Regulations which attempted to prepare the territory more directly for any spilling over into the colony of the wider conflict. Despite the preparations the colony eventually proved ill-prepared to defend itself in the face of the Japanese attack and surrendered on December 25, 1941. (See Emergency Regulations and Powers; Governor; Second World War).

Under the Letters Patent and the Royal Instructions it had been incumbent upon the Governor, the Legislative Council, and any other person the Governor might think fit, on assuming office to take the Oath of Allegiance to the reigning monarch in the United Kingdom. However, in 1985 the situation was amended to allow members of the Legislative Council to swear an affirmation or oath to uphold the laws of Hong Kong and serve the Hong Kong people rather than an oath of allegiance to the monarch. This option was not open to the Governor. Under the provisions of the Basic Law there is a requirement that the Chief Executive, principal officials, members of the Executive Council and of the Legislative Council and the judiciary, when assuming office will swear to support the Basic Law and be loyal to the Special Administrative Region.

The Japanese occupation of Hong Kong lasted from December 25 1941, when British forces surrendered, until the end of August 1945. During that period the colony was under direct Japanese military rule. The period was characterized by a major drop in population: from 1,600,000 in 1939 to under 600,000 in 1945. The economic superstructure collapsed, famine was rampant and all allied civilians and prisoners of war were interned under particularly harsh conditions. Although the Japanese surrendered on August 14, it took until August 29 for British forces to arrive in the colony to resume administration. The formal instrument of surrender was signed by the Japanese on the 16 September, 1945. (See Instrument of Surrender; Population; Second World War).

Throughout the history of Hong Kong as a colony the dominant language of the law, government and business was English. The vast majority of the population, however, spoke Cantonese which is a Chinese dialect spoken throughout the southern province of Canton (Guangzhou). The status of Cantonese became a political issue in 1971 when there was a major campaign by students to have Chinese made the official language of government. The authorities responded by allowing speeches in the Legislative Council to be made in Cantonese and this was followed by the Official Languages Ordinance in 1974 which accorded Chinese equal status with English. Despite this, English remained the dominant language in the courts and higher reaches of government. Under the provisions of the Basic Law, it is stated that after the creation of the Special Administrative Region, "in addition to the Chinese Language, English may also be used as an official language by the executive authorities, legislature and judiciary". However in the case of a dispute in interpretation the Chinese language will prevail.

The term official members came from the original Letters Patent and Royal Instructions which stipulated that persons holding office under the crown in the Legislative Council and the Executive Council would be called Official Members. In short it was another term for civil servants in the two Councils. Any person sitting in the Councils who was not a civil servant would be referred to as unofficial.

OMELCO is the office which supports the noncivil service representation in the Executive and Legislative Councils. It was created in October 1986 from its predecessor, the Unofficial Members of the Executive and Legislative Council (UMELCO). OMELCO was set up principally as a support unit for all the unofficial members but it also developed other functions including:

A maxim employed by the government of the People's Republic of China after 1978 to describe the positions of both Hong Kong and Macau after the resumption of Chinese sovereignty. It was used to reassure the two territories that they would be allowed a high degree of autonomy. Hence there would be one sovereign state, namely the People's Republic of China, but a different set of political and economic arrangements in Hong Kong and Macau suited to their different needs. The one countrytwo systems approach was also oriented towards the Taiwan government in the hope of persuading it to accept a return to the People's Republic of China.

In the two Opium Wars fought between the British and China the British were victorious. These victories led to the establishment of Hong Kong as a British colony in the first case and the acquisition of the Kowloon peninsula in the second. The first Opium War lasted from 1839 until 1842 and the second from 1858 until 1860. (See Anglo-Chinese Wars).

Lord Palmerston was the British foreign secretary on three occasions:18301834; 18351841; and 18461851. He was later Prime Minister in 18551858 and 18591865. As foreign minister he was concerned with the acquisition of Hong Kong and in formulating policy with China in the early years. It was his decision to go to war with China in 1839 and it was he who sent the fleet, without securing Parliamentary consent, for that purpose. The failure of the expedition to secure a treaty led to his dismissal of Elliot. He was also Prime Minister when the British acquired Kowloon in 1860. (See Chuanpi (Chuanbi), Convention of; Elliot, Captain Charles; Nanking (Nanjing), Treaty of; Opium War).

Any major policies affecting Hong Kong had to seek Parliamentary approval. Despite this, the tendency for Parliament was to allow Hong Kong a large degree of independence in running its everyday business. Rarely was Hong Kong discussed in any depth in Parliament and the government could usually rely on support from the majority of the legislators.

A small religioethnic minority of some 100,000 worldwide who have been of some significance in the history of Hong Kong. Parsees were followers of Zoroastrianism, which began some two thousand years ago in Persia. Forced out of Persia by the invading Arabs in the 7th century AD they took refuge in India. With the arrival of the British they quickly achieved prominent positions as merchants, agents and brokers and established a fleet of Parsi clippers which operated in the South China Seas. They were the first Indian settlers in Macau and many moved into Hong Kong with the British arrival in 1841. They established large firms, shipping companies and were great benefactors to the community. Parsi contributions made possible the establishment of the University of Hong Kong and a wide range of medical and social facilities and services.

Hong Kong had no tradition of political parties in the formal sense of the word for much of its history. This was hardly surprising given the fact that there was no means by which parties could compete for power in any of the legislative bodies, either central or local, until well after the second world war. It has also been argued that the political culture of the colony has not been conducive to the development of political parties. Parties which did exist were for the most part covert and operated under the control of external forces such as the Nationalist Party for the Republic of China and the Chinese Communist Party under the umbrella of the United Front. It was not until 1990 that the first parties were formed, principally to contest the first direct elections for a limited number of seats in the Legislative Council. The most successful and only clearly defined party was the United Democrats of Hong Kong. In the election of September 1991 they won twelve of the eighteen seats being contested, eclipsing all other "groups" including the business coalition and two Peking (Beijing) backed candidates.(See Kuomintang (Guomindang); Lee Chu-ming, Martin; Legislative Council; United Front).

Only after the first world war did it became necessary to have a passport for the purpose of moving across international borders. In Hong Kong persons holding British passports and resident in the colony were traditionally allowed entry and right of abode in the United Kingdom. However, in 1962 the Commonwealth Immigrants Act was passed by the British Parliament which introduced restrictions on immigration from the Commonwealth (e.g.India, Pakistan) and the Dependent Territories (e.g.Hong Kong). This act was followed by further restrictions in the Immigration Act of 1971.

3. British Dependent Territories Citizen, (BDTC). This was applicable to Hong Kong - and it gave only the right of entry and abode solely in the Dependent Territory itself. It did, however, as with the previous category, provide the right to consular protection whilst the holder was abroad. In order to qualify for a BDTC the applicant has to show that she or he was born in Hong Kong or a dependent of a BDTC holder.

Finally as a consequence of the Joint Declaration on the future of Hong Kong signed between the British and PRC governments in 1984 another passport was created called the British National (Overseas) Passport. It also excluded the holder from the right of abode in the United Kingdom. Holders of the BDTC could apply for this passport. For those people not eligible for either a BDTC or a BNO there were other travel documents, namely the Certificate of Identity (CI) or the Document of Identity (DI). The former was available for any person who had resided in Hong Kong for seven years. It also stated that the holder had the right of abode in Hong Kong. The latter was for those who had resided in Hong Kong for less than seven years. The restriction on this document was that the holder would have to apply for a reentry visa into the territory before leaving. (See Basic Law; British Dependent Territories Citizen; British National (Overseas); British Nationality Acts; Permanent Resident).

Sir William Peel was governor of Hong Kong from May 1930-May 1935. He came to the colony during the great depression which saw a huge diminution in world trade and had great difficulty in raising sufficient revenue for the governance of the colony. He also oversaw the transformation of the Sanitary Board to the newly created Urban Council. His relations with the Republic of China were strained and made even more complicated by the rapidly deteriorating relations between China and Japan. He was replaced as Governor by Sir Andrew Caldicott in 1935. (See Sanitary Board; Urban Council).

The People's Liberation Army (PLA) which eventually also included all naval and air forces was established, under the wing of the Chinese Communist Party, in August 1927. From the establishment of the PRC in 1949 the PLA had a large number of troops to the north of Hong Kong and could at any time have successfully invaded the colony especially given the increasingly small size of the British garrison.

With the signing of the Joint Declaration in 1984, it was agreed that the PLA would assume the responsibility for the defence of the future Special Administrative Region. The actual size of any PLA garrison in Hong Kong was a matter of dispute between the British and Chinese negotiators both before the signing of the Joint Declaration and after. This problem was still not resolved some six years after the Joint Declaration was signed. (See Armed Forces; Basic Law; China People's Republic of; Joint Declaration; Special Administrative Region).

A term which became important after the passing of various laws in Britain defining right of abode and right of entry in the period from the early 1960s to the early 1980s. A permanent resident until 1997 was broadly defined as any person who had resided in Hong Kong for seven years and who was "wholly or partly of Chinese race, any person who was defined as a British Dependent Territories Citizen (see relevant entry) and any Commonwealth Citizen who had the right to land before 1 January 1983 because they were either born, naturalized or registered in Hong Kong".

A society established in Hong Kong in 1878 whose main function was to end the kidnapping of and trafficking in human beings, particularly women and children for brothels. Its official English name was The Society for the Protection of Women and Girls. It was accorded recognition by the government in 1894. The society was helped by the administration, and in turn the RegistrarGeneral benefitted by having a clear line of communication with influential opinion in the Chinese community. It became active in such fields as restoring females to their families and helping in adoptions and marriages of females. As the incidence of kidnapping and trafficking in Hong Kong was gradually eradicated the society continued to be influential in providing services to the community. It continues to exist in the early 1990s providing educational opportunities for such groups as disadvantaged children. (See Tung Wah).

However, the Charter and the two Orders in Council provide little detail on how the colony was to be administered, and the framework of government is spelled out in more detail in the Letters Patent and the Royal Instructions. In those documents provision was made for the appointment of a Governor of Hong Kong who was the Queen's representative in the colony. He was accorded the authority to make laws for the "peace, order and good government" of Hong Kong. He was also instructed to appoint an Executive Council and a Legislative Council, to appoint civil servants and to maintain a judicial branch. In formal terms the Governor was accorded considerable powers for the running of the colony with the restraints upon his power emanating more from London than from within the colony itself. In reality the Governors of Hong Kong practiced a high degree of restraint for much of the time and usually acted in consultation with the other internal actors such as the Legislative Council and influential pressure groups. At the same time the government in the United Kingdom gradually granted increased autonomy to the colony. In the postwar era most matters pertaining to Hong Kong were left almost completely in the hands of the colonial government.

Throughout its history the Executive Council was composed of ex officio members and members nominated by the Governor. It had no elected members although the membership was eventually expanded to embrace a wider constituency and more locals. The Executive Council was primarily an advisory body. In practice, a Governor rarely acted against its advice. The role of the Executive was to deal with policy at the highest level and propose laws for the consideration of the Legislative Council.

The Legislative Council had the role of passing laws (known as Ordinances in Hong Kong). Again, in formal terms the Governor could refuse to agree to laws passed in the Council but this has been done only once in one hundred and fifty years in 1947. Membership of the Legislative Council expanded over time, with more elected members following the introduction of indirect and direct elections in the period 19851991.

The other major institutions developed slightly later. The interwar years saw the development of municipal government, and the widening of local representation through the creation of more powerful district boards came in the 1970s and 1980s. However, the political system for much of the history of Hong Kong emphasized unitary government in the colony with power concentrated very much in the hands of a central government with only dubious claims to being representative. Indeed, until after the second world war there was a marked reluctance to widen the base of the institutional structures in place.

This colonial style of government was subjected to a series of shocks in the 1960s with the growing realization that a gulf had grown between the ruling and the ruled. Major demonstrations in the late 1960s led to a greater willingness to allow for a more diverse set of influences on the making and execution of policy. Advisory boards were set up to facilitate communication with the community at large. In addition, a broader representational base became evident in the membership of the Legislative Council in particular and, to a lesser extent, the Executive Council. This was seen most graphically by the reduction in expatriate membership of the councils. The changes came both through the Governor's appointments and through the indirect election of members by functional constituencies and district boards. However, it was not until 1991 that direct elections based on geographical constituencies were allowed for the Legislative Council and even there the number of seats was limited.

At the informal level pressure groups rather than political parties have always been significant. Powerful trading and banking interests, composed initially of expatriates, were either formally appointed to the Legislative council or enjoyed informal access to the government. With the colony's economic growth after the second world war these groups were joined by powerful Chinese pressure groups representing business, trade and banking. To a lesser extent, other pressure groups such as the social work groups and the educational groups began to exert some influence in the 1980s especially with the growth of an educated and more affluent Chinese middle class.

Major changes came as a consequence of the SinoBritish Joint Declaration. It was agreed in 1984 that after 1997 the British would cease to have any authority over Hong Kong. The colony would become a Special Administrative Region under the sovereignty of the People's Republic of China, and final authority over the territory would therefore lie in Peking (Beijing). The constitution of the territory would be found in the Basic Law which was promulgated in April 1990 and which comes into effect in July 1997. In brief, the Governor would be replaced by the post of Chief Executive who, according to the Basic Law, would be more accountable with a greater separation of powers from the Legislative Council. The Executive Council would continue to perform the role of advising the Chief Executive and there was no specified intention to increase the accountability of its members by electing them. The Legislative Council was to become more democratic in so far as the "official" members were to disappear completely and elections of various types would eventually be introduced for the total membership. The local government institutions would continue to exist with few changes to their responsibilities. At the formal level, pressure groups were to be given an even more important place in the Legislature by the increase in the number of seats allocated to functional constituencies. The Legislative Council was to be completely elected with 50% directly elected on a geographic basis and 50% from functional constituencies.

The evolution of the political system, therefore, accelerated in response to the rapidly evolving situation both within the colony itself and in response to the changing demands of the People's Republic of China. Hong Kong began with the simple colonial model which the British imposed upon nearly all its territories. That colonial model, which may be described as one of benevolent paternalism, was to last for over 100 years with only incremental changes. It was forced into change in the post-war period as the territory's population and economy grew. The government's preference for a minimal role became subject to question by an ever more sophisticated and demanding Hong Kong population. Beginning in the late 1960s the government expanded both its role in consulting a wider range of people and its involvement in a wider range of activities. At the same time the informal actors centered in pressure groups continued to expand their influence both in the institutional framework and in the community at large. Despite this, it was generally recognized that the greater influence still remained in the hands of the central government, retaining a great degree of power for the administration. Externally the question of the exercise of power by the People's Republic of China and whether it would allow the same degree of real autonomy granted de facto by the British government was still not resolved. (See Basic Law; Chief Executive; Constitution; Executive Council; Governor; Joint Declaration; Legislative Council; Letters Patent; People's Republic of China; Pressure Groups; Royal Instructions).

The population of Hong Kong Island upon the arrival of the British in May 1841 was estimated at 7,450. That figure was to swell fairly rapidly to 15,000 by October 1841 and then to nearly 24,000 by 1848. Between 1848 and 1876 the better conditions in the territory, instability in China and the acquisition of Kowloon in 1860 raised the figure to 122,392. Immediately before the takeover of the New Territories in 1898 the population of Hong Kong Island and Kowloon was estimated to be 254,000. The annexing of the New Territories added a further 100,000 to that total. By 1916 the population was around half a million, increasing to over 840,000 in the early 1930s. With the outbreak of the SinoJapanese war there was a huge influx of refugees into the colony which increased the population to an estimated 1.6 million. With the military defeat of the British forces on 25 December 1941 the Japanese, who occupied Hong Kong, forced large numbers to return to the mainland so that by 1945, on the resumption of British administration, the population was thought to be in the region of some 600,000. Once more the instability of China with the civil war led to a huge influx of Chinese from across the border so that the population swelled to an estimated 1.8 million by 1947. By 1961 the census showed a population of over 3 million rising to an estimated 5.8 million in 1990.

For much of the period there was a major imbalance between the sexes with males far outnumbering females. This was because large numbers of single Chinese males crossed over into the territory in search of employment. At the same time the population was fairly young with the influx of these immigrants. The large growth in the population was heavily reduced in 1980 when the government put major restrictions on immigration from the mainland. The high birth rate which characterized the population through most of its history also showed a major decline as the standard of living in the territory dramatically improved in the 1970s and 1980s. (See Appendices).

Sir Henry Pottinger administered Hong Kong from August 1841 until June 1843. He was appointed to replace the dismissed Captain Elliot. He was instrumental in organizing the military expeditions against the Chinese which led to the Treaty of Nanking( Nanjing). Under his administration Hong Kong was declared a colony. (See Charter of 1843; Governors; Elliot, Captain Charles; Letters Patent; Nanking (Nanjing), Treaty of; Royal Instructions).

From the earliest days of the colony certain pressure groups have had a major influence on the political system. The colony had been set up largely through the insistence of the British traders and merchants. These groups expected to have their expertise respected and their interests protected. They came to be increasingly represented on the Legislative Council by the late nineteenth century and had constant informal access to the civil service and other centers of power. As a general rule their influence was directed at keeping government expenditure to a minimum, and restricting the political and economic power of the Chinese.

By the late nineteenth century members of the Chinese elite increasingly began to press for representation of their own needs and the needs of the wider Chinese community. The Board of the Tung Wah Hospital and the Po Leung Kuk were particularly prominent in promoting Chinese interests in the areas of health and social welfare.

In the twentieth century the trend of expanding the representation of pressure groups in the legislative body was sustained. However, until the end of the second world war the old order of the established British elite still dominated policy making. Small groups of expatriates in the higher levels of the civil service had close working and social links with groups in business and commerce.

Pressure group activity, by representing the labor unions, exerted some influence in the period following the first world war when strikes were occasionally used to some effect. However, in the post second world war period they had little impact, partly because of their limited membership - less than 14% of the workforce in 1987. Moreover, attempts to link unions foundered largely over the question of affiliation to political movements outside the colony. The larger Federation of Trade Unions had a marked affiliation to the People's Republic of China and the smaller Hong Kong and Kowloon Trade Union Council had direct links with the Republic of China. However, the unionization of state employees, in such fields as teaching and the social work sectors, developed significantly from the late 1970s onwards. Similar trends were seen in the civil service which by 1987 had over 53% of its staff belonging to unions.

The number of functional seats was increased even further in 1988 to 14 and to 21 in 1991. In the Basic Law it was stated that after 1997 in the Special Administrative Region the number of functional constituencies would eventually constitute 50% of the total number of seats on the Legislative Council. (See American Chamber of Commerce; Basic Law; Chamber of Commerce, Chinese General; Functional Constituencies; General Strike; Legislative Council; Localization; Po Leung Kuk; Tung Wah).

The Privy Council was established in England in the eleventh century to advise the monarch when he or she so desired. Its real power declined over the centuries in relation to the growing power of Parliament. Formally, however, it retained its advisory powers, and it was through resolution of the Privy Council that the British formally established their sovereignty over Hong Kong in 1843. Among its functions were to give formal effect to proclamations issued by the Crown. These proclamations were known as Orders In Council which were given the sovereign's assent. An Order in Council was used to acquire Kowloon on 24 October 1860 and the lease on the New Territories on 20 October 1898. It is only the Privy Council and not Parliament that has the formal right to acquire and surrender British territory, although convention demands that Parliamentary approval is always sought in such cases. (See Government, British; House of Commons; House of Lords; Legal System; Order in Council 1843; Parliament, British; Queen).

The Public Records Office was established in 1972 to store all official records. It also has a large repository of historical documents and other materials relevant to Hong Kong. Although many prewar records were destroyed during the Japanese occupation (19411945) copies of many of them are still available from the United Kingdom.

Queen Elizabeth the Second was born in 1926 and became the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1952 on the death of her father King George the Sixth. As the reigning British Monarch she is the head of state and head of the British Commonwealth. Since 1952 it was she who formally appoints all the governors of Hong Kong. Formally, but not in practice, only she had the power to conclude treaties and annex or cede territory, and all government actions in the colony were accountable to the Queen and her ministers. (See Privy Council).

The Joint Declaration between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the People's Republic of China on the future of Hong Kong was ratified by the two governments on 27 May 1985. The document was then lodged in the archives of the United Nations under its treaty series, thus making the agreement valid in international law. (See Joint Declaration; United Nations).

A system operating in the territory from November 1974 until September 1980 whereby illegal immigrants from the People's Republic of China who could evade the authorities in the New Territories and reach the urban areas of Kowloon and Hong Kong were allowed to remain in the colony as permanent residents. Between 1975 and 1980 over 500,000 of these immigrants arrived in Hong Kong placing a huge strain upon the housing, educational, medical and social services. In response the Hong Kong government, in consultation with the authorities on the mainland, ended the reached based policy. Since 1980 any illegal immigrants from China have been repatriated. However since 1989 political refugees from the People's Republic of China have been allowed to pass through Hong Kong on their way to Taiwan and the United States of America. (See Illegal Immigration; Snake Heads).

The first Reform Association was established in Hong Kong in 1867 in response to the major constitutional reforms taking place in Great Britain, most notably the doubling in the size of the electorate. However, the Hong Kong Reform Association's, attempts to make the Legislative Council more accountable died out in 1869 through an almost total lack of support. Another attempt in 1917 by a similar body named the Constitutional Reform Association met the same fate. (See Legislative Council; Pressure Groups).

A pressure group established in 1952 which pressed for more representational government in Hong Kong along with better social service provision. It was successful in providing the majority of the elected members to the Urban Council. Dominated by expatriates for much of its history it was to see a reduction in its influence as new Chinese groups established themselves in the 1970s. (See Pressure Groups; Urban Council).

The Regional Council began operating in 1984 but it was not formally established until 1986. Its role was to provide a municipal service to the New Territories. Its main concerns were with the provision of environmental hygiene, public health, sanitation, liquor licensing and the provision of cultural and recreation facilities. It was created largely because of the huge increase in the population and the establishment of new towns in the New Territories during the 1970s and early 1980s. The composition of the Regional Council (REGNO) was 12 appointed members, nine indirectly elected from the District Boards and three ex-officio members from the traditional representatives of the New Territories, namely the Heung Yee Kuk. The Regional Council was allowed to elect one of its members to sit on the central Legislative Council. (See Heung Yee Kuk; Local Government; Urban Council).

Traditionally the majority of the Chinese in the territory practiced Buddhism, Taoism and the worship of various traditional Chinese deities. A famous Buddhist monastery was built at Tuen Mun (Castle Peak) in the 5th century A.D. and rebuilt several times in the ensuing 1500 years. Nearby the granite statue of the Buddhist saint Bei Du (AD 420479) was carved in the 10th century. The 14th century pagoda at Ping Shan demonstrates the influence of the local belief in geomancy. Other temples in the territory reflect the existence of large numbers of local deities. The most important of these temples is the Tin Hau Temples at Joss House Bay built in the Sung (Song) Dynasty in the 13th century.

With the arrival of the British, the principle of religious freedom was formally established, and other religions quickly established themselves including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism and Judaism. The Episcopalian (Anglican) St John's Cathedral was opened for services in 1849, a Roman Catholic Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception in 1842 and Bethanie for sick French missionaries in 1875. These, plus the large number of other missionary organizations, such as the American Baptist Mission (1843), attest both to the freedom of religion and to the attempts to proselytize in the colony. No attempts, however, were made by the government to interfere with the religious customs of the local inhabitants and the number of converts to Christianity was never very high. However, it needs to be added that many of the early missions were established in Hong Kong primarily as a base for the spreading of Christianity on the mainland.

The question of Hong Kong's political future after 1997 raised considerable concern among religious organizations fearful that the lack of freedom of religion found in the mainland might be extended to Hong Kong. The Joint Declaration of 1984 went some way to assuaging these fears by stating in Article 3 (5) that freedom of religion was guaranteed, with an addition in the elaboration of the agreements that: "religious organizations and believers may maintain their relations with religious organizations and believers elsewhere, and schools, hospitals, and welfare institutions run by religious organizations". In short the rules pertaining to the mainland would not apply in the future Special Administrative Region. This freedom of religion was further emphasized in Article 38 of the Basic Law.

Governor of Hong Kong from September 1859 until March 1865. Internally he introduced long overdue reforms of the civil service in an attempt to reduce corruption. He also took steps to improve the quality of the administration by reorganizing its structure. He was given the wider task of administering and absorbing into the colony Kowloon and Stonecutters Island which were ceded to Britain in perpetuity by the Chinese in 1860.

Governor of Hong Kong from December 1891 until January 1898. He increased the unofficial membership of the Executive Council to two of whom one was to be Chinese. He also put an end to the practice of holding government office and simultaneously having relevant commercial interests. He left the colony on January 1898 six months before the acquisition of the New Territories. (See Executive Council; New Territories).

Rock carvings were discovered at Shek Pik in 1939. They are believed to date from the Bronze Age. Others have been found in many parts of Hong Kong, although none, to date, have been found anywhere outside the territory. Nearly all have been found near to the sea, with the exception of those discovered at Wong Chuk Hang. The majority are geometric, spiral designs, some with stylized animal faces found in the patterns. (See Map).

The Royal Asiatic Society was originally founded in London in March 1823. Its aims were to investigate subjects connected with Asia and to encourage the development of science, religion and the arts in that part of the world. It has, in its history, been a rich scholastic source of information on Asia and has done much to improve our knowledge of the region. Branches were established in Bombay and Madras in India in 1838, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in 1845, Shanghai in 1857, Japan in 1875, Malaya in 1878 and Korea in 1900. The Hong Kong branch was established in 1847 with the governor Sir John Davies as the first president. In 1859 the society collapsed, to be resuscitated on 28 December 1959. Since that time the Hong Kong branch has produced large numbers of papers and articles, many of them of considerable historical interest on matters pertaining to Hong Kong, China and the Far East.

The first policemen in the colony were raised in 1841 but a recognizable force did not come into being until 1845 when it consisted of three officers and one hundred and sixty rank and file. From the force's very beginning there were problems with corruption. The then Governor Richard Macdonnell (18661872) commented that, " I have never met or heard in any colony a body of men so corrupt and worthless en masse as the Hong Kong police, or so unreliable in every way or so ineffective in proportion to their numbers".

Determined efforts were made in the 1870s to improve the situation. Senior posts were filled with British officers and an attempt was made to increase the number of Chinese in the lower ranks. By 1874 the balance was 110 Europeans, 177 Indians and 204 Chinese. This approximate balance remained until the occupation of the colony by Japanese forces in 1941.

After the second world war there was a major reduction in the recruitment of Indian policemen with a parallel increase in the number of local Chinese entering the force. At the same time, Europeans were no longer recruited into the junior ranks below that of Inspector. (In the Hong Kong system there were three major divisions in ascending order of authority. The bulk of the force was made up of constables, sergeants and station sergeants. The second division was Inspector up to Chief Superintendent. The third was Assistant Commissioner up to the Commissioner of Police.)

It appears that the problem of corruption was substantially reduced in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1973 a major scandal which rocked the force led to the arrest of a senior policeman on charges of corruption and was followed by the establishment of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC). This organization principally targeted the police in its early operations, and between 1974 and 1979 over 250 policemen were prosecuted by the ICAC on charges of corruption. However, that number gradually decreased so that in 1990 there were only 5 prosecutions of police officers. (See Godber Affair; Independent Commission Against Corruption; Localization; MacLennon Inquiry).

The document known as Royal Instructions were first issued on April 5, 1843 to expand upon and elucidate the Letters Patent. The document is fairly simple. It gives detailed instructions on the Constitution of the Executive and Legislative Council outlining its powers and functions in relation to the making of laws and ordinances.

The Royal Instructions could be amended when necessary to accommodate changes. Indeed they were frequently amended in the latter half of the 19th century, and in 1917 they were completely overhauled. All revocations of previous articles are stated in the appropriate way with the date of revocation. In total there were eight revocations between 1917 and 1985 as well as a number of extensions. The broad areas covered by the Royal Instructions from the 1917 version include the following:

Under the provisions of the Joint Declaration, signed between the governments of the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China(PRC), Hong Kong will cease to be a colony at the stroke of midnight on 30 June 1997. At that point the Royal Instructions and the Letters Patent will cease to have any authority. (See Basic Law; Constitution; Executive Council; Governor; Joint Declaration; Letters Patent; Oath of Allegiance; Queen).

After the end of the second world war, the Hong Kong government's attempts to improve communication between the village leadership and the central authorities in the New Territories led to the establishment of Rural Committees. The New Territories were divided into 27 districts each having its own Rural Committee with the membership elected or appointed by the villagers themselves. Initially the committees had only the authority that the governmentappointed District Officer allowed them. In 1957 the Rural Committees were linked to the Heung Yee Kuk with their Chairmen and Vice Chairmen becoming exofficio members of the Kuk.

With the rapid urbanization of the New Territories and the concomitant increase in the population, the Rural Committees were reduced in importance as larger organizations, such as the District Boards and Regional Council, grew in significance. The Basic Law of April 1990, which is to come into force with the creation of the Special Administrative Region in 1997, pays little reference to the affairs of the Rural Committees in particular, or the Heung Yee Kuk in general, apart from the statement in Article 40 which stated that " the legitimate traditional rights and interests of the indigenous inhabitants of the 'New Territories' shall be protected." (See Basic Law; District Administration Scheme; Heung Yee Kuk; New Territories; Regional Council).

Large quantities of salt were produced from salt fields in Hong Kong from at least the 7th and 8th centuries onwards, and even as late as the British arrival in the New Territories there was still a thriving export trade in salt. Because of the imposition of taxes on this commodity by the imperial authorities, salt was smuggled over the border and sold at below the official price. In 1923 Sun Yat-sen's (Sun Yixian) government was eager to take over the revenues from the Chinese Salt Administration which was still under the control of the rival government in the north. When a launch belonging to the Salt Administration took refuge in Hong Kong its internment by the British soured relationships with the Sun Yat-sen (Sun Yixian) government for a time.

In 1573 the county of Tungkuan (Dongguan) (established in 757 A.D.), of which the Hong Kong area had been a part, was divided, and the southern half renamed (XinAn) county, centered on the city of Nam Tau (Nantou) just to the north-west of Hong Kong. The Gazetteers, descriptions of the district produced by the local government of this period provide a valuable historical source of information on Hong Kong.

On 3 September 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany in response to Hitler's invasion of Poland. Japan, however, declared its neutrality in the conflict. As a consequence the British colonial administration in Hong Kong, as part of the wider strategy in Asia, took a neutral stance relating to Japan. This proved difficult, given the fact that Japanese forces were occupying territory in China adjacent to the borders of the colony and the understandably proChinese sympathies of the population.

When on 7 December 1941 the Japanese forces attacked Pearl Harbor, the main American naval base in the Pacific, an attack was also launched on Hong Kong. The British forces were inadequately prepared and were rapidly defeated. The Governor announced the surrender of the colony on 25 December. The ensuing years were particularly harsh in the colony with widespread starvation and deprivation. (See Instrument of Surrender; World Wars).

Sham Chun (Shenzhen) is a part of the PRC situated immediately to the north of Hong Kong. It was designated a Special Economic Zone (SEZs) in 1980. The policy of the PRC is to develop a small number of such zones which are free from many of the planning regulations operating elsewhere. Investment in these zones has principally been by joint venture companies linking the Chinese state and foreign companies. A large number of Hong Kong entrepreneurs have set up factories in the SEZs taking advantage of labor costs which are less than half those in Hong Kong, low land costs and ease of access to outside markets. As a result there has been a substantial movement of manufacturing establishments out of the territory and into Sham Chun (Shenzhen), and an increasing tendency for those firms which remain to offset their relatively high costs by turning to the production of more sophisticated products. (See Economy: Four Modernizations; Special Economic Zones; Trade).

Under the terms of the Convention of Peking (Beijing) in 1898 the New Territories were leased to Britain with the proviso that they were due to revert to Chinese sovereignty in 1997. No substantive intergovernmental discussions on the issue then took place until 1979 when Sir Murray MacLehose became the first Governor of Hong Kong to pay an official visit to the People's Republic of China. At the time MacLehose was under pressure from business interests in the colony to reduce some of the uncertainties over the future of the New Territories. The question of land leases in the New Territories was particularly problematic given the differences between capitalist Hong Kong and the socialist system in the PRC.

Sir Murray raised the issue with the Chinese authorities but no agreements were reached. Teng Hsiao-p'ing (Deng Xiaoping) simply told the Hong Kong people to put their "hearts at ease", reaffirming an earlier and equally vague statement made by the Chinese authorities at the United Nations in 1972 that the Hong Kong problem would be solved when "conditions are ripe".

In 1982 a British minister, Sir Humphrey Atkins, pressed the Peking (Beijing) authorities to reopen formal negotiations. Subsequently, (on a visit to the People's Republic of China in April 1982) Mr Edward Heath, a former British Prime Minister was given further details of Peking's (Beijing's) intentions. Under these proposals Hong Kong would become a Special Economic Zone under Chinese sovereignty, without any British presence but with a high degree of autonomy.

Britain had hoped for some other arrangements which would allow for a continued presence, and the then Prime Minister Mrs Margaret Thatcher paid a visit to the People's Republic of China in September 1982 to open negotiations aimed at resolving the differences and achieving "stability and prosperity for Hong Kong". Almost immediately, however, relationships were soured when the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, announced in Hong Kong that the original treaties signed in the nineteenth century had been accepted by the two sovereign states and were therefore valid in law. This was in direct contradiction to the Chinese position which had been that what they referred to as "unequal treaties" had been forced upon the Chinese through military defeat and as such were not valid.

Further talks revealed that the positions were too far apart for any substantive progress, and in September 1983 the Chinese, in an attempt to break the deadlock, announced that they would make a unilateral decision in 1984 if mutual agreements could not be concluded. This statement caused panic in Hong Kong with price collapses in both the property market and the stock exchange and a huge run on the Hong Kong dollar.

These events seem to have convinced both the British and the Chinese authorities to adopt more flexible positions. The British in particular dropped their preconditions and concentrated on getting as many concessions as possible from the Chinese side. Most importantly they accepted the broad format put forward by Teng Hsiao-p'ing (Deng Xiaoping) concerning the end of British administration and the return of the whole of Hong Kong to Chinese sovereign control.

The deadlock was now broken and agreements were quickly concluded. By April 1984, the British Foreign Secretary was able to visit Peking (Beijing) and settle the outstanding issues. He returned to Hong Kong and announced that British administration would cease in 1997. In September 1984 the talks ended and in the same month the Joint Declaration was released. (See Convention of Peking (Beijing); Joint Declaration; MacLehose, Sir Murray; New Territories; Stability and Prosperity; Teng Hsiao-p'ing (Deng Xiaoping); Thatcher, Margaret).

During this period the Hong Kong area came under the control of the Ch'in (Qin), Liu Sung and Chen kingdoms. Considerable trade developed over the years between Canton (Guangzhou) and Indo-China. Tuen Mun was made an important customs post to control ships moving in and out of the Pearl Estuary. It is probable that there were exclusion areas around Tuen Mun in which no civilians were allowed to live. There is no evidence of civilian Chinese settlement during this period. It is thought that the first Buddhist monastery was built near Tuen Mun in the mid fifth century.

A term used to describe boat owners who smuggled illegal immigrants into Hong Kong before the ending of the Reached (Touched) Base policy in 1980. Their activities were at their height in the 1960s and 1970s when they relied on fast boats which were difficult to intercept. While their charges were high, the safety of the passengers was a low priority. Moreover, their refusal to guarantee passage to the urban areas meant that their passengers had still to cross the New Territories. Many failed to do this undetected, were arrested and returned to the PRC. (See Illegal Immigrants; Reached Base Policy).

The position of the People's Republic of China regarding Hong Kong was that the treaties signed between the United Kingdom and the Imperial government in the nineteenth century were invalid. They perceived the treaties as "unequal", having been imposed by a powerful state upon a weaker state. Consequently Britain was seen as never having had any sovereignty over Hong Kong despite having ruled it since 1843. This position was to cause a disruption of the 1982 negotiations regarding the future status of Hong Kong when British claims to sovereignty were disputed by the Chinese authorities. It was not until the British conceded this point that substantive negotiations on the status of Hong Kong in the post 1997 period could continue. Ultimately the Joint Declaration stated that "The government of the People's Republic of China ..has decided to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong". (See Anglo-Chinese Wars; Conventions of Peking (Beijing); Joint Declaration; Nanking (Nanjing), Treaty of; Tientsin (Tianjin), Treaty of; Unequal Treaties).

Hong Kong will be termed the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region when it reverts to Chinese control in 1997. The term was first used in the fourth version of the constitution of the People's Republic of China (1982), Article 31. It was to be applied to Hong Kong, Macau and the Republic of China (Taiwan). The purpose of the SARs is to grant a high degree of autonomy to these regions so that although they were reunified with the mainland they could retain different social, political and economic systems. Macau, under a different set of arrangements is to become a Special Administrative Region in 1999. The Republic of China (Taiwan) did not respond favorably to the idea of being offered SAR status within the PRC. (See Autonomy; Basic Law; Joint Declaration).

The Special Branch was formed as part of the Hong Kong police force in the 1950s (although a similar organization existed in the inter-war period) to monitor any subversive elements in the territory. Its main targets were perceived to be communists residing in the colony but operating under orders from the People's Republic of China. (See Royal Hong Police Force).

Special Economic Zones were created in 1980 in response to the People's Republic of China's new "Four Modernizations" program. Teng Hsiao-p'ing (Deng Xiaoping) announced their creation for the purposes of attracting foreign capital, and introducing new technology and techniques to the mainland. Three were located in Kwangtung (Guangdong) province; Sham Chun (Shenzhen),Chu Hai (Zuhai) and Shantou (Swatow). Others were created at the same time in other provinces on the mainland. Special rules pertained to these SEZs which did not apply in other areas. Most important were the regulations which encouraged outside investment, preferential tax incentives and provision for the establishment of joint ventures with firms from outside the PRC. (See Economic System; Four Modernizations; Teng Hsiao-p'ing (Deng Xiaoping); Sham Chun (Shenzhen)).

A term first popularized in 1982 by the then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and the Chinese leader Teng Hsiao-p'ing (Deng Xiaoping) to express the key conditions needed in Hong Kong in the lead up to 1997 and beyond. The phrase was included in both the Joint Declaration and in the preamble to the Basic Law, and has become a familiar echo in the territory's political rhetoric. (See Basic Law; Joint Declaration; Teng Hsiao-p'ing (Deng Xiaoping); Thatcher Margaret).

The Star Ferry riots of April 1966 were triggered by the attempts of the Star Ferry Company to increase fares from Hong Kong Island to Kowloon. The riots lasted for three days and led to a public enquiry which recommended that communication between the government and the public needed to be much improved. (See Disturbances).

The first evidence of settlement in the Hong Kong area comes from the end of the last Ice Age (18,00015,000 B.C.). There are at present 12 known sites from the Stone Age and all, except one, are situated on sand bars above the beach. No buildings or structures have been discovered. However, bones of animals and fish have been found along with stone tools and pottery. It is normally assumed that the inhabitants were seafarers rather than permanent residents.

Governor of Hong Kong from September 1919 until October 1925. He arrived at a difficult period, with the whole of China in a state of political turmoil. In the south of China Sun Yatsen (Sun Yixian), was providing a focus for rising Chinese nationalism which was to clash with the colonial powers, not least the colonial government in Hong Kong. In the colony itself many workers identified with the new pride in China and were beginning to press for higher wages, lower prices on staple foodstuffs and an increase in political influence. Labor relations deteriorated and Stubbs had to deal with general strikes in 1922 and 19251926. He was unable to resolve the 1925-1926 strike during his administration. (See Disturbances; General Strike; China, Republic of; Sun Yat-sen (Sun Yixian)).

The Sung (Song) dynasty, at its height, united China from the Great Wall in the north to Hainan Island in the south. It was to be replaced in 1279 by the Yuan (Yuan) dynasty. The Sung (Song) conquered the Hong Kong area in the mid tenth century and established a powerful military presence of up to 3,000 men. Centered at Tuen Mun it was successful in controlling the activities of pirates. With the more settled conditions trade flourished with Kowloon becoming an important center. The area now attracted settlers to the region with Chinese civilians coming to farm from the eleventh century. The first Chinese gentry families also came and established large estates in the area. One such family, the Tang, owned large tracts of land throughout the county. Other major clans established (mainly in the New Territories) during this period were the Hau clan and the Pang clan.

During the last years of the Sung (Song) period the Hong Kong region was in the forefront of Chinese history for the only time prior to the twentieth century. The last two Sung (Song) Emperors fleeing south from the Mongols passed through the area. They stayed at various sites in Hong Kong, including Lantau and Kowloon City. Despite small successes against the Mongol armies in the south the area fell to the Mongols when an attack was made upon Kowloon by land and sea. The two emperors retreated to Tsuen Wan and then across the Pearl River. In 1279 the Mongol forces finally destroyed the last Emperor and the Sung (Song) dynasty ended.

Sun Yat-sen (Sun Yixian) was one of the major figures in the struggle to overthrow the Ch'ing (Qing) dynasty. He was influential in the establishment of the Kuomintang (Guomindang) Party which formed the government in China until overthrown by the Chinese Communist Party in 1949. He was born in Kwangtung (Guangdong) Province just north of Macau, educated in Hawaii and attended the Hong Kong Medical College from 1897 to 1891. Hong Kong had a major effect upon his thinking and he claimed in 1923 that most of his revolutionary and modern ideas stemmed from observing the economy and administration of the colony. In the 1890s he became involved in revolutionary politics on the mainland and fled from the Chinese authorities to London where his studies led him to crystallize his political ideas. The best known of these were his three "Peoples' Principles", namely Nationalism, People's Rights and Socialism. These principles in turn led to a belief in the need to overthrow the monarchy, to create a republic in China, to remove the colonial powers, to establish an orderly institutional framework with elections and accountable legislative and executive branches in government, and to ensure greater government control of the economy.

When the Ch'ing (Qing) dynasty collapsed Sun was declared the provisional president of the first republic. However, he was removed from that position by the warlord Yuan Shihkai as China descended into a period of warlordism. Dr Sun fled first to Japan and later to South China where he reorganized the Kuomintang (Guomindang) Party in 1924.

The Taiping rebellion was a peasant uprising in China which threatened the Ch'ing (Qing) dynasty, but was eventually put down by imperial troops aided by the British General Gordon. It caused great instability in the Southern part of China and led to a large increase in the population of the Hong Kong as people fled from the troubles on the mainland. (See Ch'ing (Qing) Dynasty).

The T'ang (Tang) dynasty revived imperial interest in the Hong Kong area which had been largely lost during the period of the Sui (Sui), rulers of China from 581-618. The area was actively garrisoned to safeguard and further encourage a growth of trade between Canton to India and Persia. During this period important pearl fisheries were set up in Tai Po in the New Territories, Tuen Mun became an important naval base guarding the approaches to Canton and the poet Han Yue (819-824) made specific mention of it (the first time any place within the present-day Hong Kong is recorded in any surviving contemporary Chinese source). The Hong Kong area had by this time established a thriving trade in salt. There is no evidence of the region being colonized by civilian Chinese in this period.

The taxi drivers' dispute occurred in 1984. It was caused by Government proposals to increase substantially the annual taxi license fee, to limit the number of taxis and to impose a surcharge on taxis with diesel engines. A bill was approved by the Executive Council and passed through to the Legislative Council. However, when the taxi drivers heard of the proposals they immediately called a strike. The use of taxis to block main roads quickly paralyzed the road system. On the second day of the strike riots and looting broke out in Kowloon, and, faced with a deteriorating situation, the unofficial members of the Legislative Council came out in opposition to the bill which was then withdrawn. (See Disturbances; Legislative Council; Unofficial Members).

Teng Hsiaop'ing (Deng Xiaoping) was born in Szechwan (Sichuan) province in 1904. In his youth he went to study in France with a number of Chinese radicals including Chou En-lai (Zhou Enlai). He joined the communist party in 1925 and spent some time studying in the Soviet Union. He was prominent in the activities of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and founded the seventh Red Army. He served in the Red Army's political department from 1932 1934 and edited the newspaper the Red Star. During the Long March he gained prominence in the party and became the Secretary of the Central Committee and the Politburo.

In 1950 after the establishing of the People's Republic of China he became Vice Chairman in the government. From 1952 to 1954 he was minister of finance and member of the State Planning Commission. In 1954 he became Deputy Premier of the National People's Congress and deputy Chairman of the Defence Council. When the post of party General Secretary was restored in 1954, Teng (Deng) was elected. From 1956 onwards he deputized as Acting Premier in the absence of Chou En-lai (Zhou Enlai) and was third in rank in the State Council.

He was to suffer along with many others during the Cultural Revolution, being purged in 1966. Unlike many others, however, he was reinstated in 1973 and again quickly rose in the hierarchy so that by early 1976 he was third in line after Mao and Chou (Zhou). With the death of Chou (Zhou) in 1976 he was expected to take over on the death of Mao, but was again ousted in the abortive attempt by the Gang of Four to seize power.

With the removal of the Gang of Four he was once more returned to power. He was associated with the liberal wing of the Communist Party and was largely instrumental in bringing in the economic reforms associated with the Four Modernizations. In 1987 Teng (Deng) relinquished all but one of his official positions namely the Chairmanship of the Party Central Military Commission. He relinquished this post in March 1990. Despite holding no official post he continued to exercise real political power with the official leaders in the party still remaining wary of his authority.

Tens's (Deng's) influence on Hong Kong was considerable. It was he who set in train the negotiations which led to the agreements to return the colony to the People's Republic of China in 1997. The "One CountryTwo Systems" formula was very much of his making thus providing a formula for the new Special Administrative Region to be established after the hand over. He was extremely popular in the colony for his economic liberalizations on the mainland and for his position on Hong Kong. However his reputation in the territory plunged after the T'ien-an-man (Tiananman) disturbances in 1989. (See China, People's Republic of; Chou En-lai (Zhou Enlai); Communist Party of China; Cultural Revolution; Four Modernizations; Gang of Four; People's Liberation Army; Sino-British Negotiations; Thatcher, Margaret).

Until the early 1970s Hong Kong was invariably referred to as a "colony" by the government. The term colony was also to be found on the local currency. However, increasingly sensitive to the pejorative association of the word colony the government began to use the term " territory". This can be illustrated by a comparison of statements in the Government Year books. In 1982 the Year Book wrote,"Hong Kong is administered by the Hong Kong Government and organized along the lines traditional for a British Colony". In contrast, readers of the 1983 edition learned that, "Hong Kong is administered by the Hong Kong Government, and its administration had developed from the basic pattern applied to all the British governed territories overseas." However, some legal documents are more precise and accurate. In the Letters Patent amended to April 1988 Article One states that, "There shall be a Governor and CommanderinChief in and over Our Colony of Hong Kong and its Dependencies (hereinafter called the Colony)". (See Colony; Letters Patent).

Prime Minister of Britain from 1979 1990. She played a major role in the SinoBritish negotiations over the future of Hong Kong. She visited Peking (Beijing) in 1982 and on her return to Hong Kong defended the validity of the treaties signed between the British and Chinese in the nineteenth century. This led to a deterioration in SinoBritish relations and a major crisis of confidence in the territory.

In 1990 she was also instrumental in pushing through the British House of Commons an Act which allowed for the right of abode in Britain for 50,000 key personnel and their dependents. This Act faced considerable opposition both from the right wing of the Conservative party and from the Labor opposition. She was replaced as leader of the Conservative party in 1990, and resigned from the post of Prime Minister. (See Government, British; House of Commons; Parliament, British; Sino-British Negotiations; Sovereignty; Teng Hsiao-p'ing (Deng Xiaoping)).

A rule in Hong Kong which states that government documents not otherwise published cannot be made public for thirty years. This applies, for instance, to the deliberations of the Executive Council whose agenda papers are not available for public scrutiny. Even after thirty years certain parts of any document deemed to be highly sensitive can be removed. Future historians will probably have to wait much longer than thirty years to gain access to either British or Hong Kong sources in order to evaluate the details and progress of the negotiations concerning the future of Hong Kong. Hong Kong, like the United Kingdom but unlike the United States of America, does not have a Freedom of Information Act. (See Executive Council).

The T'ien-an-man (Tiananman) Square incident was of major significance to Hong Kong as well as the People's Republic of China. During May and June 1989 students and factory workers began gathering at the T'ien-an-man (Tiananman) Square in Peking (Beijing) and calling for reforms to liberalize the political system, to combat the level of corruption and to further loosen bureaucratic controls over the economy. The rallying cries were freedom and democracy. The movement gained momentum with support from other major cities in China, and the event gained massive international media coverage. The leadership was divided in their attitude towards these protests with Chao Tzu- yang (Zhao Ziyang) representing the reformist wing and Li Peng the conservative.

The considerable Hong Kong support for the demonstrations both before and after June 4 was publicly condemned by the Chinese authorities. Their anger was increased by the use of the territory as part of the escape route for fleeing dissidents after the crack-down. Two Hong Kong members of the Basic Law Drafting Committee were expelled and labelled as counter-revolutionaries, and all progress on the Basic Law was postponed. Moreover, when the final draft was released it included provisions for the Special Administrative Region to prohibit any act of treason, secession, sedition, and subversion against the Central People's Republic. (See Basic Law; Lee Chu-ming, Martin).

According to Chinese legend Tin Hau was the sixth daughter of an official in Fukien (Fujian) province. At the age of fifteen Tin Hau was believed to have acquired the ability to ride on clouds. She gained the reputation for saving people in danger, especially those at sea. When she was twenty-eight years old, Tin Hau climbed a hill with her sisters. There she entered a beautiful carriage in the sky, and was carried up to heaven. There are many temples dedicated to this goddess in Hong Kong. They are particularly well-attended on festival dates especially by fishermen who ask Tin Hau not only to ensure bountiful catches but also to provide protection from danger at sea.

Much of Hong Kong's history has been associated with its importance as a base for trade, arising largely from its position at the mouth of the Pearl river and its proximity to the important trading, manufacturing and administrative center of Canton (Guangzhou). Naval posts to guard the approaches to Canton (Guangzhou), and to control the trade with South-east Asia were established as early as the Han (Han) Dynasty (206 BC220 AD). By the period 265581 AD Hong Kong was used a customs post for trade moving between China and Indochina. In the period 618907 AD trade with India and Persia had grown so much that mention is made of the size of the naval base at Tuen Mun and its pivotal role in protecting the approaches to Canton (Guangzhou).

Hong Kong's usefulness to the British stemmed from its superb deep harbor, its proximity to Canton, and its provision of a base from which to mount military expeditions into China when necessary. These advantages were augmented by a government structure which at the very least provided few obstacles to trade, and at best provided merchants in the colony with government protection and a stable political system in which to operate.

The colony soon also became an important center for entrepot activity. As such it became a clearing house for the import of goods primarily intended for reshipping to China and a center for the export of goods from China. Ocean going ships using the colony increased from 2889 ships in 1860 to 23,881 in 1939. Hong Kong itself produced few exports, and the colony remained very much a transit center until the post-second world war period.

The period following the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 saw a transformation of the pattern of trade in the colony. Indigenous manufacturing grew up in the territories, especially in textiles, for which there was increasing demand from Western Europe and the United States of America in particular. In the 1950s and 1960s both exports and imports grew constantly, although imports continually exceeded exports. Total trade grew from HK$2,767 million in 1947 to HK$19,230 million in 1967.The main imports during this period were food, and raw materials and fossil fuels. The main exports were increasingly manufactured goods such as textiles, and later plastics, electrical goods and watches.

The largest market for goods from Hong Kong was the USA, followed by the United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany, rising from over HK$500 million in 1959 to over HK$2500 million in 1967. The most important source of imports to Hong Kong was China, particularly because of the imports of food upon which the colony was highly dependent. China was followed in significance by Japan, the USA, and the United Kingdom.

The growth of trade continued in the 1970s and 1980s. The United States remained the chief market for the colony's exports with 32% of the total value. Also significant were The People's Republic of China, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Japan. The People's Republic of China was the greatest source of Hong Kong's imports with 35% of the total. Japan, Taiwan, and the United States followed in descending order of importance.

However, the most striking change in the direction of trade came from the huge growth in reexports from the colony. These grew from a total value in 1980 of HK$30,072 million to over HK$346,405 million by 1989. The main markets for reexports were the People's Republic of China which constituted 29.9% of the total followed by the United States of America at 20.8%. Overall the key development in the colony's trading pattern in recent years has been the growing importance of the People's Republic of China, and this trend is likely to become even more significant in the years to come.

In the post- war period the colony has remained a free port with no restrictions upon the import and export of goods. It remained a champion of the principle of free trade and was active in promoting free trade and opposing protectionism in bilateral and multilateral meetings. The Special Administrative Region which will be created in 1997 is to continue this position. It will be allowed to trade freely with other states, will remain a free port and will be allowed to continue its support of the principles of free trade both in its own territory and in relation to other states. (See Basic Law; Economic System; GATT; Special Administrative Region).

Governor of Hong Kong from April 1964 until October 1971. He was faced in 1966 with the Star Ferry Riots and in 1967 with the far more serious disturbances arising from the impact of the Cultural Revolution. In the aftermath of the 1966 disturbances he initiated an inquiry, which recommended more contact between the people and government. His administration largely failed to deal with increasing levels of corruption in public life despite increasing pressure in the colony to face the problem.(See Cultural Revolution; Godber Affair; Star Ferry Riots).

With the arrival of the European powers and the decline of authority by the Ch'ing (Qing) Dynasty there was a breakdown in law and order in China. This allowed the Triads to prosper and at the same time move into illegal activities. By the end of the nineteenth century the Triads were heavily involved in such activities as loan sharking (loaning money at exorbitant interest rates), gambling, prostitution, drugs and protection rackets.

As early as 1845 the authorities in Hong Kong recognized that Triads were operating in the territory and passed an ordinance to suppress them. At this point triads were still widely perceived as being principally concerned with mainland politics rather than criminal activity. By the 1880s however the Triad societies had moved into protection, prostitution, gambling, opium smuggling, and blackmail. In 1887 the Societies Ordinance was passed to attempt to control the organizations. Further Society Ordinances were passed in 1911, 1920 and 1952.

Until the early 1980s the Royal Hong Kong Police force had a special unit, the Triad Society Bureau, responsible for dealing with the problem. This was then replaced by the Organized and Serious Crimes Bureau. More recently attempts have been made to introduce legislation modelled on the American RICO Act to combat the Triad organizations.

The hospital's establishment can largely be attributed to public shock at the findings of an enquiry into conditions in the Kwong Fuk Che temple. Originally founded as a repository for the ancestral tablets of Chinese who died in Hong Kong away from their family homes in China, the temple also began to provide a place in which people could die without bringing bad luck to the house in which they had normally lived. Unfortunately conditions in the "death house" were most unsatisfactory with no medical facilities and minimal levels of care. An investigation followed by the publication of a highly critical report prompted several prominent members of the Chinese community to establish a management board for a new hospital. Eventually in addition to the medical services provided by the hospital, the management board itself became an unofficial but powerful platform for the expression of Chinese interests particularly during the nineteenth century when Chinese representation on government bodies was minimal.

In 1931 the original hospital amalgamated with other hospitals in the territory to form the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals. The political power of the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals declined in the postsecond world war period partly because of the greater provision of medical and social provision by the government and partly because of the opening up of other major avenues of political influence for the Chinese elite. However, even in the late 1980s the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals still operated five hospitals with a total of 4,000 beds and provided services for the elderly, the young and the physically handicapped. (See Po Leung Kuk).

The acronym UMELCO stood for Unofficial Members of the Executive and Legislative Council. This organization was created in 1963 for all those members of the two bodies who were not "official" (i.e. having membership by virtue of being senior government officials). Its role was to monitor and comment upon the activities of the government, and it was later to become a useful channel for redress of public grievances against the government. Its name was changed in October 1986 to the Office of the Members of the Executive and Legislative Council (OMELCO). (See OMELCO).

The term used by the People's Republic of China to refer to the set of treaties in the nineteenth century which created Hong Kong. According to the Peking (Beijing) authorities the treaties were imposed by a powerful Britain upon a weak and divided China after military conquest. In the Chinese view, because the treaties were not signed between two equal sovereign powers, they could not be valid in international law. It followed that the Government of the People's Republic of China was not bound to recognize their provisions on such matters as sovereignty over Hong Kong. (See Anglo-Chinese Wars; Conventions of Peking (Beijing); Joint Declaration; Nanking (Nanjing), Treaty of; Sovereignty; Tientsin (Tianjin), Treaty of).

A term first used in the context of the marxist call in 1848 for all groups committed to the overthrow of the ruling governments in Europe to unite. The concept was used by Communists in China in 1923 when they entered their brief alliance with the Nationalists. In 1949 it was adopted by the People's Republic of China in its claim to represent all peoples organizations and socialist working people. The Chinese Communist Party Constitution refers to all those "compatriots" abroad who were working towards the unification of the "motherland" which included Taiwan (The Republic of China), Macau and Hong Kong.

Subsequently the significance of the United Front concept has been difficult to gage. Some members of left-wing trade unions and some of candidates for District Board elections have probably seen their activities in these terms. At the grass roots level membership probably expanded during the 1980s, and there has probably been a direct, although never admitted, connection with the work of the New China News Agency. (See

The full and correct title given to the sovereign power which rules Hong Kong until 1997. Until Ireland ( later to become Eire in 1937) was given Dominion status in 1921 the title was the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Six counties remained under the control of the British Crown and were known as Northern Ireland or Ulster. Great Britain is made up of three units namely England, Scotland and Wales. The full title is rarely used so other terms such as the United Kingdom, Great Britain and Britain are more commonly employed. Some refer to the state as England, which is even less accurate as it ignores Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

The United Nations Organization was established on 24 October 1945. Its original membership grew rapidly with the creation of new sovereign states as a result of the decolonization process of the post war period. In 1988 there were 159 members, all of them members of the General Assembly. The smaller Security Council has five permanent members including the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China, and ten rotating members. A Secretariat administers United Nations activities, and finance is provided by the member states. Other associated organs include the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Economic and Social Council.

The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) was created in 1951 taking over from its predecessor, the International Refugee Organization. It became particularly active in Hong Kong following the influx of Vietnamese refugees after 1978. The UNHCR was relatively successful in settling the refugees in other countries in the early 1980s but found it difficult to resettle the increased numbers arriving in later years. (See Vietnamese Refugees).

Unofficial Members was the term applied to those members of the Executive Council, Legislative Council, the Urban Council, Regional Council and District Boards who were not civil servants. In each Council, the Unofficial Members elect a Senior Member, who wields considerable influence as the spokesman of the whole body of Unofficial Members. The Governor appointed these persons in the Executive and Legislative Council under the terms of the Letters Patent thus giving the term a legal status. District Board, Urban Council and Regional Council unofficial members were legitimized by ordinances of the Legislative Council which gave the Governor the power to make appointments. Although the term was officially dropped in 1985, it is still used in common parlance in Hong Kong. (See OMELCO).

The Urban Council was established in 1936 to replace the Sanitary Board which had operated since 1883. Its functions are to provide services such as street cleaning, refuse collection, environmental hygiene, public libraries and various recreational and cultural activities. Since 1973 it has enjoyed considerable financial autonomy.

The Urban Council was one of the first bodies to have an elected membership although this was originally on a restricted franchise. In 1983 those restrictions were lifted so that the potential electorate was in excess of 3.4 million. Initially it was largely made up of government officials, but by the 1980s this practice had been abandoned. By 1983 there was a total of 30 members with 50% elected and 50% appointed by the government from key sections of society. From 1988 one member of the Urban Council, elected by his or her fellow members, has had a seat on the Legislative Council. (See Local Government; Regional Council; Sanitary Board).

Since the end of the Vietnamese war the Democratic Republic of Vietnam has not been afforded official diplomatic representation in Hong Kong. There was, however, a Vietnamese Trade Delegation in the colony which looked after the country's interests. The difficulties of this task have arisen from the frequently hostile relations between Vietnam and the PRC, the poor relationships between Vietnam and western states, and Hong Kong's irritation at numbers of Vietnamese refugees who have left the country since its reunification to seek refuge in Hong Kong. (See Vietnamese Refugees).

The first refugees who arrived in 1975 were quickly resettled in Hong Kong or other countries. However, later arrivals proved more difficult. In December 1978, the ship "Huey Fong" brought in 3,300 refugees, followed by another 2,600 in February 1979. The root of the problem was the British Government's policy which made Hong Kong a "Port of First Asylum". Under this policy the Hong Kong Government was obliged to offer shelter and food to those refugees for whom Hong Kong was their first landing place. Whilst most other Southeast Asian countries ensured that refugees never landed, Hong Kong adopted a more humane system. The result was that between 1975 and 1981, a total of 105,155 refugees were provided with shelter in Hong Kong of whom 14,000 were offered permanent residence. By the end of 1980, there were 24,000 Vietnamese refugees in camps in Hong Kong.

In face of the growing reluctance of other countries to resettle the refugees and the increasing public resentment towards refugees in Hong Kong, in 1982 the government introduced a "closed camp" policy which aimed to discourage new arrivals by confining refugees to basically equipped camps and making it clear it did not intend to resettle them. In response the refugee intake dropped to only 2,230 in 1984. However the figures began to rise gradually in 1986/87, and increased sharply in 1988 largely because of an agricultural crisis in Vietnam.

The Hong Kong Government's next initiative was a new "screening policy " announced in June 1988. This scheme involved the use of internationally accepted criteria to distinguish "genuine refugees" from "economic migrants". This scheme which was endorsed in the Geneva Conference in June 1989 was applicable to all arrivals who arrived after midnight 15 June 1988. However the intended purpose of reducing the number of refugees staying in Hong Kong has not been realized. By the end of October 1989, only 264 refugees had been returned. Discussion between the British, Hong Kong and Vietnamese governments continued, and in September 1990 an agreement was reached to repatriate those were not genuine refugees and who were "not opposed to going back". The scheme was to be administered by the United Nations High Commission on Refugees. On 12 December 1989, 51 boat people were sent back to Vietnam against their will and to a chorus of international criticism. Labor Members of Parliament in Britain criticized the deportation as "tyrannical" and "shameful", while a spokesman for the U.S. President stated that "the repatriation is unacceptable until conditions improve in Vietnam".

While there was sympathy in Hong Kong for those ethnic Chinese refugees who were discriminated against by the Vietnamese Government, especially after the SinoVietnamese War in 1979, this did not generally extend to those ethnic Vietnamese who were seen as economic migrants. Also significant was the changing of policy in the territory towards illegal immigrants from China who from 1980 were forcibly returned to China. Policy was seen as being unequal and discriminatory against Chinese people. Even more significant was the large and mounting cost of supporting the refugees.

These mass attitudes were reflected in the tough stance taken by the Legislative Council's ad hoc committee established to monitor the situation. The committee urged the relaxation of the First Asylum Policy, argued for refusal to increase accommodation for new arrivals, and attempted to secure greater contributions to the cost of the policy from the United Nations High Commission for Refugees.

Although the use of village representatives was never actively pursued by the British in Hong Kong and Kowloon, the New Territories, with its predominantly rural population provided a more suitable context. There the village enjoyed a high degree of autonomy from state supervision, even before the signing of the Treaty of Peking (Beijing) in 1898 leased the area to the United Kingdom. The basic administrative unit remained intact, with each district subdivided into a number of tung (valleys) and heung-yeuk (villages). The villages formed part of a hierarchy with village leaders making up an administrative council. Larger villages even had a system of law and order with individuals appointed and paid to keep the peace by the village leaders.

After 1898, the villagers were highly suspicious of the new colonial government, one typical example arising in March 1899, when the colonial police chief met with considerable opposition to the establishment of police stations and government offices. This was seen as an unwarranted intrusion into the autonomy of the villages, who had not experienced similar interference from the Chinese authorities in the period prior to the British arrival. Two meetings were initiated by leaders of the Tang Clan, and it was agreed to resist the colonial government. The main confrontation between the colonial government and the villagers in the New Territories took place at Tai Po in March 1899 when government contractors attempted to erect temporary headquarters for the British administration on a hill near the market. They were hindered by the villagers who believed that the fung shui was being disturbed. A short (9 day) war was quickly ended by the surrender of the Chinese villagers.

Gradually the control of central government was increased. The clan feuds were brought to an end, the political power of the gentry vanished, and, most important of all, the influence of the village councils was generally reduced. However, the villages still retained some control over their own affairs, and continued to exert some influence over the policies of the central government.

The urbanization of the New Territories began in the 1970s with the government decision to undertake substantial public housing projects away from existing urban areas. However, this urbanization, was not fully mirrored in the power of the relevant political institutions. Although the percentage of the New Territories population living in rural communities had dropped to around 12.6% in 1986, an elaborate set of institutions preserved their representation on the relevant local government bodies. In the late 1980s there remained over 900 village representatives who were elected or appointed from the 509 villages in the New Territories. These representatives were grouped into 27 Rural Committees each of which elected an executive committee. The Chairman and Vicechairman of each executive committee in turn sat on the full council of the Heung Yee Kuk, which continued to form part of the local government system in the New Territories. The Regional Council established in 1986 maintained a formal link with the Heung Yee Kuk through the exofficio membership of the chairman and the two vicechairmen on the council. Moreover, three of its appointed members were chosen from the members of the Heung Yee Kuk to ensure a strong relationship with the traditional inhabitants of the New territories.(See Heung Yee Kuk; New Territories; Regional Council).

A document which visitors to Hong Kong had to obtain from the Immigration Department before they were allowed to enter the territory. Although visas were generally easy to obtain, citizens of Soviet Bloc countries were not given visas in the territory until the early 1990s. The visa could be extended if the applicant had employment in the territory or desired a longer stay. Holders of full British Passports were entitled to stay up to twelve months and were free to seek work in the territory. This privilege will end in 1997.

The use of a universal franchise in the territory took place for the first time in the 1981 Urban Council Elections. Prior to that time the Urban Council was elected on a limited franchise. Voters had to belong to one of 23 categories such as taxpayers, journalists, holders of the School Certificate Examination or other diplomas or degrees, businessmen or members of professional organizations. This system recognized only 440,0000 people as potentially eligible voters, and out of these only 35,000 registered their right to the vote, and approximately onethird of this smaller number actually voted in the 1979 Urban Council election.

The right to vote at all institutional levels was gradually extended to people over the age of 21, who had lived for seven years in Hong Kong and voluntarily registered on to the electoral register. The only exclusions were lunatics, prisoners who had not yet served their sentence, members of the armed forces and those convicted in the previous ten years of corrupt or illegal practices.

The District Board Elections, held every three years since 1982, met with a poor response from the electorate. Only 37% and 30.3% of the registered voters turned out to vote in the District Board Elections in 1985 and 1988 respectively. although turnout in the New Territories (38% in 1988) has generally been slightly higher than that in the urban areas (26% in 1988). This probably indicates the greater cohesiveness of the Rural Committees since the pattern in the new towns was closer to the urban figures. This low turnout rate for the District Board elections may be partly explained by the political culture of Hong Kong people which emphasizes the perceived deviousness of politicians, but it probably also reflects the limited functions and powers wielded by the District Boards.

Elections to the Legislative Council were not established until 1985. However, the initial electoral system (based on functional constituencies and indirectly elected members) for the 24 seats was very limited in scope. Although the functional constituencies were to elect 12 members in the Legislative Council their membership covered only a small fraction of the adult population, and was drawn overwhelmingly from the professional classes. For the indirectly elected members, the public were not involved except for having originally voted for the District Board members who then elected 10 members to the Legislative Council from among themselves.

Traditionally wages in the colony have been largely set by market forces. For most of the nineteenth century they were kept low by the continual influx of cheap labor from the mainland. In the twentieth century, and particularly after the first world war, trade unions attempted to use collective bargaining to increase wage levels. However, they met with little success, and although the Government passed a Minimum Wage Ordinance in 1932, it was never acted upon.

After the second world war the huge influx of refugees, in tandem with a very low membership of trade unions, helped keep wages relatively low. Nevertheless, wage levels did gradually improve in real terms. Using an index of wage levels adjusted for inflation and starting in 1950 with 100 as a base, the figure had risen to 140 by 1963 and 203 by 1967. The ending of the reached base policy in 1980 reduced the supply of cheap labor, and wage levels began to rise at greater speed. In 1989 the overall average daily rate for workers was estimated at HK$167. There was, however a significant difference between the daily wages of men and women with men receiving an average of HK$201 and women HK$144.

Partly as a consequence of the rising wage levels in the territory there was, particularly in the late 1980s and early 1990s, a large movement out of the territory and into the Special Economic Zones of the PRC of those manufacturing firms which relied on cheap labor. (See Economy; Population; Reached Base Policy; Sham Chun (Shenzhen); Special Economic Zone; Trade).

Water supplies have always been a problem for Hong Kong. Although the total level of rainfall is high, much of it normally falls in the months of May to September. The problems this causes were more manageable when the population was low, but the increase in population soon led to an increasing use of water from untreated wells and streams. Not surprisingly this in turn led to regular outbreaks of cholera, dysentery and typhoid during the nineteenth century. The situation was not resolved by the construction of reservoirs first at Pokfulam and later at Tai Tam Tuk and in the newly acquired New Territories.

After the first world war the still rising population and the occurrence of periodic droughts made necessary the occasional importing of water by boat from Foochow (Fuzhou), Shanghai and Japan. From 1945 the situation deteriorated further. Not only did the population continue to expand but much of the industrial expansion taking place was in sectors such as textiles which used considerable amounts of water. Clearly the construction of reservoirs in an already small land area could provide only a partial solution, and in 1960 successful negotiations took place to purchase water from the People's Republic. The supplies which reached Hong Kong by pipeline proved to be adequate to meet a steadily increasing demand. For example, the demand for water increased from 387 million cubic meters in 1977 to 800 million cubic meters in 1988. The scale of the contribution of the PRC supplies is exemplified by the fact that in 1990 Hong Kong imported over 500 million cubic meters from the mainland with the remainder being supplied domestically. Under an agreement signed in 1989 the PRC will further increase supplies to 660 million cubic meters by 19941995.

Wei Hai Wei is situated in north China at the entrance to the inner Yellow Sea, and was leased to Britain in 1898 at the same time as the New Territories. Some observers in Hong Kong have argued that it offers an instructive analogy for the Hong Kong situation. Although it prospered under British administration, when it was returned to China in 1930 its significance declined.

A White Paper is the term given to a publication produced by the government of Hong Kong outlining major government proposals in administrative or legislative matters. The most important White Paper in recent years was the one which set out the territory's political future after 1997, entitled "A Draft Agreement between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the People's Republic of China" ( 26 September 1984).

During the Governorship of Sir Murray MacLehose (19711982) publications known as Green Papers were also introduced. Their purpose was to introduce government proposals at an early stage in order to provide time for public consultation. Although the discussion arising from Green Papers sometimes led to the modification of the government's proposals, they have been used only occasionally.

Sir David Wilson became the Governor of Hong Kong in April 1987, following the death of Sir Edward Youde. He had previously held office in the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO), had been political advisor to the Governor Sir Murray MacLehose, and had taken part in the negotiations over the future of Hong Kong as UnderSecretary for Far Eastern Affairs in the FCO. Major developments during his term of office were the prolonged negotiations over questions relating to the changeover of power, the great stock market crash of 1987, major changes in the territory's representative institutions, the repercussions of the suppression of demonstrations in the People's Republic of China in June 1989, and the publishing of the Basic Law in 1990. (See Basic Law; Foreign and Commonwealth Office; T'ien-an-man (Tiananman)).

For much of Hong Kong's history the dominant issue relating to the workforce has been the balance between a steadily increasing demand for labor and the immigration of workers from the mainland. Throughout the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth the workforce expanded continually to meet the demand from the colony for mostly semi-skilled or unskilled labor.

By the 1961 census the workforce was estimated to be over 1.2 million out of a total population of over 3.1 million. This was to increase to 1.454 million out of a total population of 3.7 million in 1966. The vast majority of the workforce in the 1960s were to be found in the manufacturing sector (475,000 in 1961), followed by the community services (123,020) and commerce(131,279). Of those the overwhelming majority were unskilled or semiskilled labor, with only a fairly small professional or managerial pool to draw upon.

However, these figures conceal some significant changes. In particular, with the ending of the reached base policy in 1980 Hong Kong entered a period of shortage of labor. Emigration from the territory increased during the 1980s,and was concentrated in the areas of Hong Kong's greatest shortage, namely the managerial and professional classes. Wages, responding to market forces where demand for labor exceeded supply, went up rapidly in the period 19801990. The response by many firms in the manufacturing sector has been to relocate in the Special Economic Zones of the PRC. (See Economy; Population; Reached Base Policy; Special Economic Zones).

In the second world war Hong Kong fell to Japanese military forces after a short campaign lasting from the 8 December 25 December 1941. During the occupation shortages of food and work led to a major exodus of the population which fell from 1.6 million to 0.6 million.The Japanese surrendered their forces in August 1945 and the British resumed their administration of the colony. The population declines of the Japanese occupation were quickly reversed with the total reaching 1.8 million by 1947. (See Second World War).

Bowring tried several times to meet Yeh to discuss the proposed revisions, but when they met on 22 May 1854 outside Canton (Guangzhou) Yeh effectively rejected the proposals. Relations between Britain (Hong Kong) and the Chinese authorities deteriorated further ultimately culminating in the outbreak of the Arrow War (see Arrow War).

Governor of Hong Kong from 1982 to 1986. He died in office in Peking (Beijing) in December 1986. His involvement in the SinoBritish negotiations over the future of Hong Kong was as a member of the British delegation and not as a representative of Hong Kong, which would have been unacceptable to the Chinese. His efforts as Governor were almost wholly concerned with bringing about a negotiated settlement for the future of the territory. He was known as a hard negotiator who did much to safeguard, as far as possible, the interests of the territory. An indication of the high regard in which he was held was reflected by the grief shown by many sectors of the community at his funeral. (See Governor; Joint Declaration; Sino-British Negotiations).

The Young Plan was drawn up by the then Governor Sir Mark Young in August 1946 at a time when the Hong Kong government was attempting to reestablish its legitimacy following the Japanese occupation. Refugees had crowded into the colony following the Japanese surrender, and at the same time criticisms were being raised over the completely nonrepresentative nature of the colonial government. The main features of the plan were:

Although the plan met with a degree of public approval, the new governor, Sir Alexander Grantham, faced considerable opposition to it from unofficial members of the Legislative Council. Initially the proposals were watered down, and the plan was quietly abandoned in 1952. It was not until 1980 that any major institutional reforms, based on electoral criteria, were seriously considered again. ( See Legislative Council; Mark, Sir Young; Regional Council; Second World War; Urban Council).

Governor of Hong Kong from September 1982 to May 1947. When the Japanese invasion in Hong Kong began in December 1941, he refused to surrender but following serious bombing in many parts of Hong Kong and on the advice of General Maltby, he ordered the surrender. He was taken prisoner by the Japanese and suffered cruel ill treatment in captivity.

Unfortunately little is known of Hong Kong during this period. There is evidence of a reduction of imperial presence and a significant increase in settlement in the area by the remnants of the Sung (Song) court. The area probably fell under the control of a local warlord in this period. It is believed that coastal trade declined which would have had a detrimental effect upon the Hong Kong area.

For a territory of less than 400 square miles and a current population of less than 6 million, of whom only a small percentage are fluent English speakers, Hong Kong is well covered by academic work written in English. Perhaps not surprisingly, however, the emphasis in much of the earlier English language literature reflects the colonial situation. Certainly much of the material written on early Hong Kong emphasizes the history of the British administration and its problems, rather than the lives and concerns of the indigenous population. More recently some of these emphases have shifted slightly, especially with the emergence of larger numbers of Chinese academics and centers for research on Hong Kong and the wider region in which it is set.

For accounts of Hong Kong's distinctive character and how this derives partly from its historical development two reliable and very readable introductions are Morris, J. Hong Kong: epilogue to an empire. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1990. rev. ed. and Wilson, R. Hong Kong! Hong Kong!. London, Unwin Hyman Limited, 1990.

More systematic are two annual publications produced locally. Firstly, the Hong Kong Government's own review of the year, Hong Kong (date changeable) provides a statement from the government's view of the colony's economy, constitution, education system, etc.. It also contains helpful appendices with the latest sets of government statistics on key aspects of government activity, the economy and social trends. To complement this the Chinese University Press produces an annual version of "The other Hong Kong report". (See for example Sung, Y. W. and Lee, M. K. The other Hong Kong report 1991. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1991). These volumes contain a series of essays which provide more critical perspectives on the topics covered by the official government publication.

As a major tourist center, and having a substantial but mobile expatriate community, Hong Kong also generates a reasonable market for books which make extensive use of large photographs and which are often bought as souvenirs of a stay in the territory. Perhaps the best of these to give a flavor of the territory today are Roberts, L. introduction by Spurr R. "Over Hong Kong". Hong Kong: South China Morning Post, 1989., and the "Insight Guide" to the territory, by Lockhart, S. and Eu, G. (eds.) Destination: Hong Kong. Hong Kong: A.P.A., 1989. There are also some good quality books of this genre which emphasize the colony's historical development. Good examples are Fishbeck, F. Building Hong Kong: a history of the city through its architecture. Hong Kong: Formasia, 1989 and Wiltshire, T. Great cities of the world: old Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Formasia, 1987.

Two books which remain well illustrated but provide a more thorough account of the colony's history are Birch, A. Hong Kong: the colony that never was Hong Kong: Odyssey Press, 1991 and Cameron, N. An illustrated history of Hong Kong Hong Kong, Oxford University Press, 1991. The standard general introduction to the history of the territory is Endacott, G. B. A history of Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1973.

The territory's relative unimportance prior to the establishment of the colony is reflected in a relative dearth of literature. While the Government's Report of the Hong Kong Archaeological Survey (Five volumes). Hong Kong: Hong Kong Government Printer, 1985 provides a meticulous account of the archaeological finds in the region, a useful overview can be found in Meacham's short book, Meacham, W. Archaeology in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Heinemann, 1980.

The political setting for the early years of the colony is admirably covered in Fairbanks, J. K. Trade and diplomacy on the China coast: the opening of the treaty ports 1842- 1854. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1964. (Two volumes). An interesting contemporary source is the work by Eitel first published in 1895 which emphasizes most of the major political developments of the nineteenth century Eitel, E. J., introduction by Lethbridge, H. J. Europe in China. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1983. Some interesting aspects of social conditions in the colony's early years and their relationship to an evolving political system can be found in Sinn, E. Power and charity: the early history of the Tung Wah hospital, Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1989. Some excellent essays on the period which also raise issues of continuing significance are to be found in Lethbridge, H. J. Hong Kong: stability and change. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1978.

The events surrounding Britain's acquisition of the New Territories are well covered in WesleySmith, P. Unequal treaty 1898-1997: China, Great Britain and Hong Kong's New Territories. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1984. (rev. ed.). An authoritative work on major political issues of a slightly later period is Miners, N. Hong Kong under imperial rule, 1912-1941. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1987. Interesting reading about the social mores of the Western and Chinese elites of the period is provided in Gillingham, P. At the Peak: Hong Kong between the wars. Hong Kong: Macmillan, 1983.

An interesting illustrated account of the 194145 period is Lindsay, O. At the going down of the sun: Hong Kong and Southeast Asia 1941-45. London: Hamish Hamilton, 1981. But the most comprehensive treatment of the period remains Endacott, G. B. edited and with additional material by Birch, A. Hong Kong eclipse. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1978.

Some interesting aspects of Hong Kong in the 1950s and 1960s are covered in Jarvie, I. C. with Agassi, J. Hong Kong: a society in transition. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969. However, the literature on the postwar period is dominated by the implications of the change in sovereignty due in 1997. Analysis of the agreement and its implications has varied from the polemical to the systematic. A good example of a reasoned critique of the emerging political situation is Shawcross, W. Kowtow! London: Chatto and Windus, 1989. A useful collection of papers on the agreement for politics, the law, the economy and society is Jao, Y. C., Leung, C. K., WesleySmith, P. and Wong S. L. (eds.) Hong Kong and 1997: strategies for the future. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1985. Although the contributions are somewhat uneven in quality and differing in their underlying assumptions, the collection reveals much about modern Hong Kong as well as its possible future. It also contains the full text of the Joint Declaration.

The literature on politics and administration in modern Hong Kong is relatively well developed. An essential overview is Miners, N. The government and politics of Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1991. (5th ed.). A more overtly analytical approach is to be found in Scott, I. Political change and the crisis of legitimacy in Hong Kong. London: Hurst, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1989. Also of great interest is Davies, S. and Roberts, E. V. Political dictionary for Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Macmillan, 1990. This not only provides a description of major features of politics, economics and society in Hong Kong, but also examines the meanings of key political concepts within the Hong Kong context.

Two recent comprehensive academic guides to the Hong Kong economy which can be recommended are Ho, H. C. Y. and Chau, L. C. (eds.) The economic system of Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1988, and Peebles, G. Hong Kong's economy: an introductory macroeconomic analysis. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1988. A more brief but well argued and clearly presented introduction is Davies, K. Hong Kong to 1994: a question of confidence. London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1990.

Some key issues in society are covered in two readers: Kwan, A. Y. H. and Chan, D. K. K. (eds.) Hong Kong society: a reader. Hong Kong: Writers' & Publishers' Cooperative, 1989. (2nd ed.); and Leung, B.K.P. (ed.) Social issues in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1990. A well argued treatment of social attitudes is Lau, S. K. and Kuan, H. C. The ethos of the Hong Kong Chinese. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1988. Finally, an interesting account of social policy which covers social conditions, social attitudes and policy responses is Jones, C. Promoting prosperity: the Hong Kong way of social policy. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1990.

Burkhardt, V. R. Chinese creeds and customs. Hong Kong: South China Morning Post, 1953, 1955, 1958. (Three volumes) is the standard work on traditional Chinese religion in the territory, while Smith, C. T. Chinese Christians: elites, middlemen and the Church in Hong Kong Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1985 provides some interesting insights onto the influence of Christianity in Chinese society.

The title of WesleySmith, P. An introduction to the Hong Kong legal system. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1987 is appropriate. Some essays which set legal issues in wider political and economic frameworks can be found in Wacks, R. (ed.). The future of the law in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Histories of key figures and companies are relatively common, and can provide significant comments on wider social contexts. Interesting examples are: Choa, G. H. The life and times of Sir Hai Ho Kai: a prominent figure in nineteenth century Hong Kong. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1981; Keswick, M. (ed.) The thistle and the jade: a celebration of Jardine, Matheson and Co. London: Octopus, 1982; and King, F. H. H., King, C. E. and King, D. J. S. The history of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987, 1988 (Four volumes). Endacott, G.B. A biographical sketch book of early Hong Kong Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 1962 is more eclectic in ranging over a number of individuals, but is well researched and written.

The two daily English language newspapers, The South China Morning Post and the Hong Kong Standard, are of high standard especially given their limited potential readership. The weekly Far Eastern Economic Review is well informed and well written. It covers a wider area than Hong Kong, takes an appropriately wide ranging view of what is "economic", and contains regular series of statistics on the economic performance of countries throughout the region.

Finally, the Hong Kong Government produces large quantities of generally accurate and frequently helpful statistics on many aspects of the economy and society. Unfortunately, however, many of the pre-second world war government records were wantonly destroyed by the Japanese during the occupation of the colony between 1941-1945.